Keywords: Papacy; crusading; Ottoman Empire; Walachians; Matthias Corvinus
Pope Pius II official main goal was the anti-Ottoman crusade. With the – altogether notable – exception of Vlad III (Dracula) the Impaler’s Ottoman combats and excesses of 1461-1462, the Walachians did not fit at the time into the framework of potential crusaders. This began to change however towards the end of Pius II’ pontificate (in 1463-1464) as the actual crusade drew closer. Yet it was not Walachia, formerly ruled by Vlad III, but Stephen III’s Moldavia, previously a strong member of sultan Mehmed II’s camp, who caught Western attention and interest. The paper explores this evolution and its (short-term) consequences in context of the anti-Ottoman efforts made by Venice and Matthias Corvinus, even after the death of Pius II and the election of Paul II, whose anti-Ottoman crusader commitment was rapidly decreasing.
More...Die hiermit zu Licht gebrachten Angeben bieten, unserer Meinung nach, ein einheitliches, weIltl nicht auch vollstăndiges Bild der Faktoren, Anschauungen und Mitteln, welche ~ur Entnationalisierung der Rnmanen von den ungarischen Regierungen, in der Zeitspanne zwischen der Einfti!hrung des Dualismus bis zur Vereinigung Siebenbiirgens mit Rumănien (186'7-1918), verwendet wurden. Diese vie1fălrige Politik umfaJ3te die wichtigsten Bereiche des staatlich-sozialen Lebens : Verwaltung, Rechtsweren, Kirche, Schule, Armee, Polizei, Wirtschaft, Kolonisationen, die so genannte ,;soziale Annaherung", ja auch widerrechtliche, Einschlichterungs- und Unter'< 1ră<:hungsmaJ3nahmen. Die Ruminen siltzten einen anhaltenden Widerstand aU, den gesetzlichen. administrativen, aber auch ,denmiJ3brş,uchlichen MaJ3nahmen gegen liber. Letzten Endes trugen das geSchichtliche Volksre'cht und die moralische Stărke den Sieg davon. , Am 1. 'Dezember 1918 triumphierten die Grundsatze der wahren Demokratie und nationalen Einheit der Rumănenen, und damit wurde der zwanghaften Entnationalisierungspg'itik eiu Ende gesetzt.
More..."L'Association transylvanienne pour la litterature roumain et la culture du peup1e roumain" (ASTRAl. la plus importante societe culture11e des roumains de la Transylvanie entre 1848-1918, a ete fondee en 1861. Elle a connu un moment important de son exisence en lH70, guand on a ereI.' ses seetions 10cales, destinees d'etre un moyen essentiel de rapprochement entre l' "Astra" pt les gens du peuple Parmi les premieres sections C'Tt;es, a ete aussi celle d'Alba Iulia qui a compris, surtout au debut, un grande partie du departement d'Alba. La presente etude, accompagnee par plusieurs documents, presentes en Annexe, traitaussi sur le moment de la creation de cette section, que sur son activite pendant les pre, miers decennies de son existence, jusqu'en 1900. EmpIoyant une riche documentation inedite - d'archive et d('s journeaux de l'cpoque -- l'auteur presente d'nne manieri' detaillee les suc('es et les echecs dans l'a('tivite de l'association dans le departement d'Alba. (;râce aux initiatives de quelques intellectuels 10caux, tels que Rubin Patiţia, Axente Sever, Ioan Pipo:;;, on pourrait noter ici, il part un excellent debut, des realisations importantes concernant la diffusion de la culture au milieu de la population roumanine. Un râIe en cette direction, l'ont eu les assemhlees gcnerales de la section, tenues chaques ar.nees dans unI.' autre localite. Dans ces assemblees on a presente quelques conferences ("disE'rtations") reussies concernant des themes d'aetualite du domaine social-economique et cult ureI , on a organise des concours destines il stimuler l'interet pour la culture et le progres economique, on a coopte de nouveaux membres et on a ramasse des fonds au benefice de l'association. l\lalheureussement, apres 1887, depnis gue Ioan Pipoş s'etait retin~ de la direction, au sein de la section se sont manifestees certaines dessensions, ayant des effets negatifs, meme quelques interruptions temporaire:-. de son adivite. La periode de "crise" sera d(~passee en 1902. Dans l'etape suivante, I'adivite de l'association il Alba Iulia et dans le departement allait se devellopper en but d'une nob1e mission, celle de preparer l'accomplissement de l'unite nationale des roumains le l c r Decembre 1918, la Grand Union.
More...Keywords: Romania; Communism; ideology,society; economics,repression; prison
ION ILIESCU, 1971 – The Year of Ideological Changes in Romania II On June 9, 2009, the former president Ion Iliescu presented in N.I.S.T. a lecture regarding the causes and consequences of the ideological change that Nicolae Ceausescu initiated in the summer of 1971. The article presents the second part of the conference dedicated to discussions. FLOREA DUMITRESCU, The Economic and Social Evolution in the Romanian Society in the ’60’s –’80’s, XX century In this article, Florea Dumitrescu, former Minister of Finance and Governer of the National Bank during the Communist regime discusses a series of elements that founded Romania’s developemnt policy in the ’60’s –’80’s, XX century. If initially the credits from the I.M.F. and the World Bank had an important role in Romanian economical development, afterwards the decision of the Romanian leadership to reimburse in advance the external debt created a lot of tensions in the realm of the national economy. The restrictive measures taken by the government in 1980-1989 led to an excessive depreciation of industrial equipment, decreasing the production quality and the diminishing of workers’ revenues. ION BAURCEANU, Remembrances from Aiud Ion Baurceanu was born in 1931 in Comanesti-Covurlui – Galati. He was arrested in 1951, subjected to a trial for anticommunist activity and sentenced to 15 years of forced labor, 5 years of civic degradation by the Bucharest Military Court. He was improsoned at Jilava, the lead mines from Baia Sprie and Cavnic, Aiud-Zarca, Gherla-Zarca, Periprava, Galati. He was pardoned in 1964, while he was imprisoned at Jilava. The article we publish respresent a short rememberance of his passing through the penitentiary of extermination from Aiud.
More...Keywords: national movement; modernization; regional peculiarities; autonomous policy
Broadly speaking, national movements from the Habsburg Monarchy, as part of the modernization process, are enrolled in an already defined European model and are based on certain common elements that take into account every nation’s efforts to obviate the basic shortfalls of one’s own national existence. Mainly, these comprised the lack of an autonomous policy, the inexistence or the feeble development of a written culture in one’s own language, as well as the existence of an incomplete social structure. These represent a historic process that unfolds on the long span of the historical time. It commences with the conscience crystallization regarding one’s own national identity, in the second half of the 18th century and proceeds along the next century with the political movements’ emergence that were based on the nationality idea. Eventually, notwithstanding the regional peculiarities and methods, it prompts the downfall of Austria-Hungary at the end of the 20th century second decade and the emergence of new national states on the map of Europe. The synthetic review endeavored particularly for the Czechs, Croats, Poles, Romanians, Serbs, and Hungarians departs from political-judicial statute differences, that resulted from the specific manner in which every province apart entered into the composition of the Habsburg Empire, as well as from the geopolitical situations occupied by certain nations from the empire, in order to follow by what means all these left their mark on the political programs of each national movement apart. Certain common traits are emphasized from the multitude of specific peculiar situations, together with the differences that, in time, led to the existence of certain profound disagreements between the national movements of the Habsburg Monarchy’s nations, whose final result was its collapse at the end of the First World War.
More...Keywords: monetary issuing; issuing date; imitations; fraud
The republication of the treasure found at Ungureni (county of Botoşani) opens up the path for further discussions on the penetration, circulation and accumulation of Escalin in XVIIth century Moldavia, as a common and stable currency, meeting the needs for small cash, in the context of the loss of the old Hungarian and Ottoman currencies of local circulation. After the restoration and the establishment of technical data, the 363 monetary emissions were grouped into original (187), counterfeit (171) with stamp particularities and completely worn out (5).
More...Keywords: Romanian historiography; Hungarian historiography; Stephen the Great; Matthias Corvinus
A discussion of the political and ideological context in which there appeared a work that, from beginning to end, contains mystifications of the historical realities in order to create new ethnic identities.
More...The entire issue of 32 pages is offered for dowenload as 1 file. Before you download the entire issue you may first download the Table of Content to evaluate, whether it offers texts covering your fields of interest.
More...Keywords: Atticism; Cluj school of law; private law; public law; civil law; criminal law; commercial law; constitutional law; administrative law; financial law; labour law; elite; legal school;
In the 20th century, the best jurists from Cluj imposed certain value benchmarks, especially in those branches of the law in which the originality of the solutions was on the tops, and these orientations have been benchmarks for the Romanian doctrine and case law several times. The judiciary elite represented one of the dynamic social shares of professional conduct from Cluj, both at the academic level, by those professors who represented the solid school of law, and by its practitioners of first importance, lawyers, judges or prosecutors exercising their office in the inter-war years. The legal doctrine from Cluj was also in the forefront for the Romanian legal doctrine, as it has permanently launched new theories related to different aspects of law appeared in its various stages of specific development of the social relationships and of the economic and political growth of the State. The nucleus of Cluj law school was built and developed under the aegis of the Faculty of Law of the University, as well as of the Cluj Subsidiary of the Romanian Academy, representing umbrella forums, which systematically organized and conducted the scientific research in the legal field. Since 1919, when the Kingdom of Romania decided to establish “The National Superior Dacia University” in Cluj, which became “King Ferdinand I University” later, the Faculty of Law managed to recruit valuable professors who were notable jurists, who distinguished themselves as enthusiastic creators of school and tradition. Belonging to the first generation of the university jurists from Cluj, Traian Pop, Camil Negrea, Ion Cătuneanu, George Sofronie, Romul Boilă, Victor Onişor were part of the elite of trainers of legal school, in the climate of which, during its development stages, certain professionals of law were distinguished, such as Erast Diti Tarangul, Aurelian Ionaşcu, Ioan Albu, Tudor Drăganu, Vladimir Hanga, Ion Deleanu, Liviu Pop. In their capacity as experts in private law and publicists with solid concerns in the field of legal science, they provided that cohesion needed for the development of an important corpus of ideas, concepts, theories, solutions and papers which conferred some conceptual unit to the legal way of thinking from Cluj and inclusive significance of the specific manner of expression of the personality of the Transylvanian jurist in the Romanian public life.The way of thinking and the writings of the jurists from Cluj in the inter-war years were distinguished by a certain Atticism, as many of the outstanding writings of the authors of the law papers were created based upon the idea of measure, balance, system. If the doctrinal orientation at the national level was strongly influenced by the French legal doctrine in civil law, and by the Italian legal doctrine in criminal law, in Ardeal the Austrian legal tradition represented the followed legal pattern, and this aspect may be explained as well, by the influence of the Imperial laws and especially, of the Austrian Civil Code, which continued to apply until 1943 in the Transylvanian region.
More...Keywords: fortified towns; Brașov; Belgorod; Akkerman; Citadel of Brăila; Giurgiu; ottoman administration; Ukrainian Historic Towns Atlas; Lviv; Lemberg; Liov; Tecuci; Bistrița; Buzău; Râmnicu-Sărat; Bucharest;
Book reviews
More...Keywords: Fibulas;bent stem;VIth century AD;Lower Danube;the Avar zone;Byzantine Empire
Cast fibulas with bent stem are one of the most characteristic finds from the second half of the VIth century on Lower Danube. They have a precise area of spreading and a well establish chronology. In this paper I try to propose a new approach regarding typology by renouncing to old criteria. So I suggest the stylistic criteria as the only one to form groups of fibulas. Some of the groups are specific for a small area and some have a larger spreading. Of course, this aspect, the spreading, will always depend of the publication of museum collections from the South of Danube. Also, I try to draw a more accurate image regarding how this type of fibula was produce. The solitary picture of the workshop from Drobeta is now more complete because of some other discoveries, especially those from Caričin Grad. Drobeta still remains the only workshop for mass production. Concerning the chronology, I think I succeed to argue a particular aspect. Most of the fibulas cease to exist after the end of the VIth century. But this is true only for the south Danube finds, because in the Avars area, this type of fibula is still in use till mid VIIth century. A long discussion has been taking related to the dimension of fibulas. I think that beside the economic or mercantilist explications, it can be suggested one based on the dressing rule: the big fibulas was wearied on shoulder level, while the small one was wearied on the basin level. As well, are some indications that fibulas were use, sometime, in pare or attach by a small chain by other dressing elements. It is hard to indicate, according to present data, if this type of fibula belonging to the male or female costume. Finds from the graves suggest the appurtenance to female costume, while the pieces from military fortress hint the male costume. Till new data this is an open discussion. Not to forget the possibility that it can be a unisex type of fibula or the differences of appurtenance can suggest different areas. I have in mind possible differences between the Avar zone and the South of Danube area (Byzantine Empire) Anyway, these fibulas are not an ethnic symbol. It represents a Byzantine product that, in small number, was exported in Barbaricum. It is the mark of a dressing mode developed in a short time and in a well delimited area.
More...Keywords: XVIth century; hoard; Hungarian coins; denar; Oradea
The monetary discovery analyzed in the previous pages is a hoard found in in 1971 in the area of Oradea city currently preserved in the collection of the Criş County Museum (Bihor county). The hoard consists of 1584 small silver coins (denar) issued between 1468 and 1594 by the Hungarian kings: Mátyás I, Ulászló, Lajos II and the Habsburg emperors as kings of Hungary: Ferdinand, Miska and Rudolf. The composition of the hoard is incomplete, because six coins (one denar from Bella IV, one half-groschen and four weisspfennigs) seem to be modern intrusions. In this article, the catalog will be organized based on the coins issuers, and at the end of each chapter we will add brief notes regarding the mints, mint craftsmen, forgeries or hybrid coin editions that are different from the coins in the catalog. Besides the basic coin identification, we also used a indicative calculation of the contemporary value completed by an approximation of the exchange rates on the period of the accumulation and hiding of the hoard. The hoard is mainly composed by coins of small value, used in daily transactions, especially in rural areas and in conformity with the exchange rates the estimated value of the hoard ranges around the modest amount of 8-9 florini or roughly 13-15 talers.
More...Keywords: Chișinău-Corlăteni grooved Hallstatt culture; East Carpathian region; lower chronological limit; Late Bronze Age; Noua culture; last quarter of the 13th century BC.
The forest steppe zone of the Carpathian and Dniester regions in the Hallstatt period was inhabited by the communities of early Thracians, natives of the middle Danube basin who expanded eastwards. From an archaeological perspective, these popu- lations are known as the Chişinău-Corlăteni culture, which replaced the Noua culture of the Late Bronze Age. This process is demonstrated by a succession in multilayered settlements, where the early Hallstatt horizons overlay on stratum specific for the late Bronze Age which occurred, according to the specialists, at the middle of the 12th century BC. The results of recent research of the Noua culture prove that the final stages of the Noua and Sabatinovka cultures must be limited to the 13th century BC. Therefore, the formation of the Chişinău-Corlăteni culture in the East Carpathian area should be placed in the same chronologi- cal sequence. This situation requires for further examination of the discoveries that serve as markers of the Chişinău-Corlăteni culture, accumulated so far, in terms of determination of an area of its origin, cultural identification, and chronological frame- work of their advent in the East Carpathian region.In this regard, diagnostics are certain categories of bronzes and decor motifs on bitronconic vessels. The first ones are represented by pieces of the Central European tradition, specific for the Middle-Late Bronze Age (Hügelgräberkultur and re- spectively, Urnenfelderkultur), spread in the basins of the Middle Danube, Upper Tisa and the Carpathian basin, mostly during BrD-HaA1 (13th-12th century BC) (pieces of jewellery and clothing, weapons, tools). Among the ornamental motifs specific for bitronconic vessels characteristic of the complex Belegiš II-Chişinău-Corlăteni the conclusive decor consists of parallel horizon- tal flutes in combination with a number of circular impressions, which were not used in the ceramic ornamentation of the post Belegiš II cultural groups, the evolution of which begins in middle of the 12th century BC. In conclusion, the vestiges specific for the Chişinău-Corlăteni culture, accumulated so far, provide the basis to talk about its appearance in the Eastern Carpathian region already in the first half of the 12th century, possibly even in the last quarter of the 13th century BC.
More...Keywords: Hungarian optants; German settlers; Hungarian revisionism; illegal real estate restitutions; national security;
The issue of the Hungarian optants in Transylvania is a file, a writing, about an end and a rebirth, the end of the Central European empire and the rebirth of the nations liberated by sacrifice from the dungeon of that empire. A file about the collapse of an empire at the time of its sinking, the dual Austro-Hungarian empire, and the springing of the nations into the light of the rebirth of the long Habsburg night is a special phenomenon in a culture. It is a picture that we can contemplate with amazement, but also with fear, the monstrous grandeur of an empire where the Hungarian electors evolve on a twilight stage, on which are distributed nations, chancellors, governments, embassies, armies, political internationals of the time, on which already foreshadows the ghost of a panid that seems to be coming back to life today. Today, Romania has found itself vulnerable due to poorly designed legislation and corruption and is put in a position to return in full properties, buildings or land for which the Romanian state anyway paid compensation in tons of gold, in the 30s of last century. In other words, Romania is damaged two or even three times if we consider that the taxes used to build many of the buildings in Transylvania were paid by the lower social strata, ie by peasants and small craftsmen or merchants, who in the sea most of them were Romanians, the nobility of the three privileged nations being exempt from taxes.
More...Keywords: philosophy; virtue; apatheia; sophrosyne; discernment; temperance; philanthropy;
Sophrosyne defines the soundness of mind as order, harmony and balance of human nature, while disease is caused by excess and insufficience… As practical wisdom, sophrosyne has an intellectual determination as self-knowledge, as well as a moral qualification, promoting self-control as self-mastery, aimed to achieve apatheia as liberation from passions, so the mind attains the vision of God to fullfill the purposes of philosophy, which is the likeness and the union with God. Borrowed by christian spirituality in order to convey its own spiritual philosophy which leads to the salvation of the soul, Sophrosyne recieves its own christian valences, with the purpose of repainting the image of God in man and “partake of the divine nature” (2 Peter 1:4). Sophrosyne is involved in the ecclesial, cultural and social life through reasoning enlightened by “faith working through love” and strengthened by the power and work of divine grace, able to cultivate and affirm the mentality and behaviour as life in Christ through the Holy Spirit. Expressed by discernment and temperance, Sophrosyne is not, in the philocalic way of life, a virtue amongst others, but “the mother, guardian and the common (universal) name of all virtues”. By cultivating holiness oriented towards philanthropy and temperance, man accomplishes, through Sophrosyne, the work of God and fulfils His Kingdom in the world of sin, towards its salvation.
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