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Summary the following issues are presented in the paper: 1) traditional (statutory) recognition of the supervisory board function in a joint-stock company, and 2) modified non-expressive concepts of the supervisory board functions in modern enterprises using agency theory, steward theory and E. Gutenberg’s concept.
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The paper discusses the development of road transport in the context of the demand for workers, which is unevenly distributed across the European Union. The aim of the study was to determine the impact of the amendment of EU legislation on posting of workers on unemployment in selected EU countries. The article presents the characteristics of unemployment in the largest economies of the European Union. The introduction of the new EU directive is aimed at equalizing road transport salaries in all EU countries, which is expected to result in the loss of competitive advantage of companies from Central and Eastern Europe. The research methods used in the article are the analysis of literature and data of the Central Statistical Office and Eurostat.
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The study focuses on the analysis of the ways of internationalization of micro and small Ukrainian enterprises. It contains such elements as: introduction, analysis of the functioning conditions of micro and small enterprises in Ukraine, analysis of the own research results in the following areas: understanding the nature of the internationalization process, motives and barriers to the internationalization of micro and small Ukrainian enterprises in the applied internationalization strategies. The introduction includes the purpose of the study and the characteristics of the empirical research. The internationalization of small Ukrainian enterprises has been described. The study is completed with a summary referring to all mentioned considerations. The most important conclusion from the study: micro and small Ukrainian enterprises use “early internationalization”.
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The specifics of development of retail trade in Ukraine, through its further internationalization, consists in satisfying various consumer needs, which forces retailers to diversify their capabilities, while taking into account the specialized needs of individual customer groups. As a result of combining two opposing trends – diversification and specialization on the consumer market – a new dualistic strategy is being developed that dictates the logic of the emergence and development of new commercial formats of enterprises. Research and the synthesis of new trends in the development of these global trade formats are becoming a precondition for entrepreneurs to define their own strategy to maintain their position in the consumer market.
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Józef Piłsudski was often described in women’s diaries. He was greatly appreciated as a politician, admired as a men and even feared of as a terrorist and socialist. Women’s attitudes towards Piłsudski were determined by few factors. Knowledge about Piłsudski’s life and activity was taken from opinions formulated in journals, from his public appearances and in some cases from personal contacts. Women who supported his political course had of course very positive evaluation of Piłsudski. But one can find also critical views of this outstanding politician. In particular, women who belonged to oppositional, conservative circles were very critical. This paper is based mainly on diaries written before Poland became independent. Some like Wierna służba. Wspomnienia uczestniczek walk o niepodległość 1910–1915 (Warszawa 1927); Służba ojczyźnie. Wspomnienia uczestniczek walk o niepodległość 1915–1918 (Warszawa 1929) were written by Piłsudski’s collaborators. Their view is contrasted with diaries of M. Lubomirska who represented very critical assessment of Piłsudski.
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The model of man in the Krasińskis branch of Opinogóra was shaped by two people: Adam Stanisław Krasiński (1714–1800) bishop of Kamieniec and general Wincenty Krasiński (1792–1858). In 1790, when his father passed away, Wincenty Krasiński was only eight years old. At that time, the bishop of Kamieniec Adam Stanisław Krasiński took over the care of the boy. Now wonder, it was Adam Stanisław who formed the idea of man in the young Wincenty. Adam Stanisław Krasiński, himself a bishop, did not show great religious devotion and his relationships with women could cause scandal, to say the least, especially those with Genowefa Brzostowska and Urszula Dembińska. As father but also head of the family, Wincenty Krasiński represented the models instilled in him by Adam Stanisław Krasiński. Like the bishop of Kamieniec, he was certain about his infallibility. His violent nature, not tamed in the childhood, burst out in Wincenty’s adulthood with impetus. Not only his character, at least to some extent, was formed by the bishop of Kamieniec. As a father, Wincenty drew on the model instilled in him by Adam Stanisław.
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We make a lasting friendship with people who have a character similar to ours. Our friend does not have to have life experiences similar to ours. This also applies to male friendship, the diversity of which is confirmed by the correspondence maintained by Józef Ignacy Kraszewski with two representatives of the bohemia in Warsaw. Analysis of letters J.I. Kraszewski and A. Wilkoński allow us to state that they were true friends who were in some way inseparable and able to count on each other in every situation. This is confirmed by their mutual kindness, open sympathy and constant contacts maintained by the humorist with the Kraszewski family. Similar origins and convergent experiences of the 1930s could also have influenced their friendship. However, when we compare their familiarity with the writer’s contacts with T. Lenartowicz, it will turn out that a real male friendship can appear between two people coming from completely different backgrounds and having different experiences from adult life. Their example also leads to the statement that initially male friendship may take the form of father-son relationship or student-master. It seems that the example of both artists can be seen as proof of the existence of not only a lasting and strong male friendship, but of any real friendship.
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The Philomath Society, which was set up on the 1st of October 1817 in Vilnius, is a great example of friendship. The amity became a main motive of society’s birth and a main rule of its functioning. There were two aspects of friendship – a value and the relationships between Philomaths. The Society members idealised friendship and credited it with worthy qualities. Moreover, the companionship was treated as a virtue and was contrasted the selfishness, hated by Philomaths. The Philomaths’ friendship evolved because of their departures as well as the characterological changes. They befriended as the young students but with time they became the men who started their adult life. That is why the relations were not free of conflicts or misunderstandings. However, their interactions influenced and determined their fates strongly. In some cases the friendship survived till the end of Philomaths’ lives.
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Stanislaw Jan Czarnowski was a lawyer by education, a journalist and a publisher by profession and a great enthusiast for archaeology, the best-known as a cave researcher of Ojców Valley. He was born in 1845 in an educated family who had landowning roots. He learnt in the Private Herman Hiller School, in Practice Academy and in Classical Middle School in Kielce. The culmination of his education was studies in Warsaw Main School. Czarnowski’s Memoirs include some details applying to his school and student life, besides sociable and cultural life in 19th century Kielce and Warsaw. Upbringing and Stanislaw’s consecutive periods of education were typical for a boy from 19th century educated family and were seldom the same like Memoirs from 18 landowners’ sons education. th19, th20, Centuries by Stanislaw Jan Czarnowski are valuable source of broadening knowledge about a 19th century Polish family model, Memoirs about educational methods and an education system, which were in the Kingdom of Poland. also present Czarnowski’s youthful years which were the beginning of his interests of literature, nature science, sightseeing and archaeology that he developed in his adult life.
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Aleksander Maciesza was the son of Siberian exiles. At present, he is counted among the most outstanding figures of Płock in the 20th century. He was a doctor by profession, but his knowledge and interests went beyond the learned medical view. Aleksander Maciesza was not only a well-known doctor, an outstanding ophthalmologist, a lover of science and anthropology, but also a social activist, local government activist, anthropologist, archeologist, photographer, but most of all he was a man of great passion for exploration. He was remembered, by the inhabitants of Płock, as a long-term president of the Płock Scientific Society, the mayor of Płock and the president of Płock in the beginning of the Second Polish Republic. His contributions to science and the city of Płock and its residents make him an extraordinary doctor, but above all an extraordinary man.
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The protagonist of the article is a man, a Pole born in Vilnius a few months before the outbreak of the November Uprising, who managed to realize the dream of a career in the capital of the tsars. He found there not only a good job, but also a life companion with whom he raised a family. Artur Doliński – he came to Petersburg at the age of 24 and left it as a 53-year-old pensioner. The city was a place where he matured, where he became independent, where his vision of the world was strengthening, where he pursued his passions. We learn about his private life on the Neva primarily from correspondence with his family – father, mother, half-siblings and friends
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The article on the basis of fictional literature shows the life of a student-Pole during his studies at the Polytechnic in Kiev in the early twentieth century. The intellectual interests of the young man and the ways of their implementation are shown. An important place in the student’s life was then love affairs. He and his fellow adventurers were shown in this field.
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This article is the first attempt to present the life and personality of Stanisław Adam Marek Walewski in reference to the preserved sources. The source of the subject is mainly rich materials from the Archive of Kazimierz Walewski from Tubądzin located in the State Archive in Łódź. In addition, the diary of Cecylia from Zaleskich Walewskiej, which contains many valuable descriptions of married life, was used. In the article the author focuses not only on the marriage of Stanisław with Cecylia, but also tries to answer the question of how much he supported his beloved in her professional and social work.
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The aim of the article is an analysis of personal relationship and experiences of men who lived at the turn of the 20th century and biggest cities of the Kingdom of Poland, Warsaw and Łódź. Fast rate of demographic development and changes in urban space at the time had an important impact on observers. According to this, author analyses memoirs of three chosen young members of intelligentsia, who became adult circa 1900: Ignacy Baliński, Józef Galewski, Aleksander Mogilnicki, Michał Sokolnicki and Kazimierz Wroczyński. Their relations has some similarities and differences. The most important of them is way of writing about urban space of Warsaw and Łódź. After the analysis it can be stated that men who lived at the turn of centuries could admire the city in a broad way, discover urban space and valuate it. They experienced some border and dangerous events like demonstrations or riots. Their relations are an evidence of 19th century moral norms, which allowed men to use urban space in much more opened way then women. At the same time strong emotional relationship with Warsaw and distant attitude to Łódź and its urban space can be noticed.
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In this text, the author reproduces the image of Minsk at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries seen from the perspective of Michał Pawlikowski, a lawyer, publicist and civil servant in the period of the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The work does not have a strictly defined chronological framework. It is based primarily on Pawlikowski’s autobiographical novels and his journalism. The whole is complemented by interesting memories of Maria Czapska from the same era, articles from the emigre press and studies – primarily from the history of literature. Undoubtedly, the text aims to bring Pawlikowski’s work, now somewhat forgotten, which is undoubtedly a good source, for example for researchers of the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the eve of the First World War.
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The defeat of Poles in the struggles for independence in the nineteenth century caused a wave of repression, many participants of the fights were arrested and were sent to Siberia by Tsarist prisons. They came to live in inhumane conditions. From the writings and paintings of Aleksander Sochaczewski, the picture of Poles living in exile, in this “ice hell”, “imprisonment without bars” emerges. The environment of exiles was very diverse. Contrary to the limitations resulting from the nature of the exile, everyone tried to live and somehow tame the land. In many places relatively large clusters of Poles were created. They co-created the atmosphere of Siberian cities, they gave evidence of living in extraordinary conditions, in which they were able to run their own business and earn a good fortune with good results. An example of this is the biography of Narcyz Wojciechowski, who systematically sought to gain a position and multiply the estate. He was an active social activist, and at the same time remained a patriot and raised up his children for patriots.
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The purpose of my article was to consider Kazimierz Chłędowski in the context of other Polish travellers from the mid-nineteenth century. 19th century was a time of increased travelling and also time of increased number of voyages d’Italie, diaries form journey. Italy has its own special place in the area of peregrine interests. Italy, this specific kind of “summarized history of Europe”, as has it been described by Józef Kremer, in the 19th century gained a different face than in previous centuries. It has to be told, that Italy – as one of the most popular destinations of European intellectual elites – had a twofold symbolism. This country was often described as a synthesis of all journeys, a huge book, from which people could read the secrets of antiquity. Nevertheless it was often called a “tomb for the living”, a place, where there is no future, a fallen ruin. In addition, the community of thoughts and feelings was very strong between Poles and Italy throughout the whole nineteenth century. In this unusual period, one of the most interesting representations of relations between Poland and Italy were literary works and memories of Kazimierz Chłędowski, who reinterpreted this convention. Did the writer’ privacy give readers a chance to find their Italian paths?
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Presented article deals with the problem of sporting life and other forms of physical activity of the Polish political exiles who after the November Uprising took refugee in Britain. Refering to various sources, the author tries to establish how important was sport to the Polish emigrants, what were their favourite sports and to what extent they were influenced by the British sporting patterns. It is evident that sport was not one of the emigrants’ priorities. Focusing on the politics of exile, everyday hardship and a slight contempt for some disciplines perceived by the Poles as ungentlemanly, caused refugees to abstain from active participation in many British sports. It does not mean that sport was completely absent in emigrants’ life. Many of them were keen walkers and fencers. A few who could afford to do that practised horseback riding and hunting.
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The man’s situation has changed little over the centuries. He did not have to emancipate himself. In the nineteenth century, the Polish traditional model of the patriarchal family was in force, in which the man, as a pater familias, decided on all important matters concerning family members. The dominant position of a man in a marriage was largely sanctioned by tradition, which was also reflected in the guidebook literature for women. The man’s destiny was to become husband and father. His role in society was additionally strengthened by the begetting of offspring, which was emphasized by religion. In the light of Christian faith, fatherhood was a gift and a vocation. The basic duties of the man, mainly, were work aimed at keeping the family. It was he who satisfied all the needs of those closest to him. He made all the important decisions himself. He also represented the family outside. The most important thing for a man was gaining success in life, while the most desirable value for women was marry. Only in this way could the woman gain respect and position in society. Guidebook literature in the nineteenth century also favored these patterns and stood for the integrity of the family and the privileged position of the man. In her pages there were often advice adhering to the traditional values of the family, where marriage was considered the beginning of a new social cell whose primary function was procreation and then raising children. In the nineteenth century, it was widely believed that the destiny of every woman is to be a wife and a mother, therefore personal patterns intended for women primarily took into account those values that made it easier to get and keep a husband.
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The article discusses the motives and causes of the phenomenon of “unmarried men”, which were included in popular humorous texts from the second half of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century. During the discussed period there were some significant social transformations. One of the manifestations of these changes was the increasing number of men who were living alone. In the context of nineteenth-century norms of morals, this situation aroused social concern. Lack of acceptance and stigmatization of people who were living alone, that was expressed in the epithets of the “confirmed bachelor”, as well as the “old maid” and in the widespread stereotypes, rose the question: why do not the bachelors marry? The aim of the article is to examine the arguments appearing in selected sources in the context of the following questions: Was this situation a result of a bad fate or rather a choice? If the reason was hidden in external – social and moral factors and what role economic reasons played in this situation?
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