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The evolution of the world’s epic conception in “Sevastopol Sketches” written by L.N. Tolstoy is considered. Based on the analysis of the ratio of paragraphs in “Sevastopol in December”, it can be affirmed that the epic component in the first sketch is represented in justification of the war aimed at defense of the motherland. The “growing up” of the narrator and his awareness of what is taking place in the world are shown as the epic events. The epic component of “Sevastopol in December” turns all the city’s defenders into high epic heroes. A temporary loss of faith in people unity gives a way to the consolidation of the concept of “we”. At the beginning of the sketch, the concept of “people” involves all people in the city. At the end of the sketch, this concept comprises an inseparable body of city defenders. In the first paragraph of the sketch, the war eliminates harmony, but peaceful life dominates in the last paragraph of the sketch. “Sevastopol in May” deals with the problem of incompatibility of a human with the epic models. Furthermore, a single criterion for appreciation of people is suggested. The “dialectics of soul” in the second sketch is combined with the high mood of the epic heroes from the first sketch. The conclusion is made that people are united by the components of both elevated heroism and negativity of the world. “Sevastopol in August” shows the complexity of transformation of a human toward the world’s epic conception. The first two chapters of the sketch are treated as an exposition of Mikhail and soldiers. It is shown that there are eight micro cycles in the sketch consisting of three chapters connected by the principle of parallelism/contrast or a situation uniting people. In the first microcycle, the characters become cowards. In the second microcycle, they overcome fears. In the third microcycle, these fears dominate. In the fourth microcycle, Volodya overcomes his fear. In the fifth microcycle, every person gets a chance to become a hero. In the sixth microcycle, Volodya rejects the lies among officers. In the seventh microcycle, he feels calm among soldiers. In the eighth microcycle, both brothers die heroically. The nature and defenders of the city protest against the surrender of Sevastopol. The fearless courage in defeat is stronger than the fortitude of soldiers from the first sketch. The conclusion is made about the three-phased idea of L.N. Tolstoy’s artistic thinking.
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The paper deals with L.N. Tolstoy and A.M. Dobrolyubov’s criticism of modern civilization and art. L.N. Tolstoy was renowned, especially in the late period of his life, by his hostility towards the culture of his time. The paper shows the key points of L.N. Tolstoy’s criticism. L.N. Tolstoy sharply attacks the whole complex of social and cultural notions and institutions, which were influential in that period. He strictly rejects the fruits which progress brings to humanity if these fruits are not able to affect the most important, from his point of view, part of human life – the religious part. He contrasts the religious worldview with art and science. According to L.N. Tolstoy, the purpose of human life is in connection with others. From this position he criticizes art, science, state institutions and power. Some of these ideas correspond to the views of A.M. Dobrolyubov, which are set down in “The Invisible Book”. Attention is also paid to the reasons that forced L.N. Tolstoy to acclaim A.M. Dobrolyubov’s spiritual authority and to call him “a man living a Christian life”.
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The paper considers the problem of possible influence of J. Austen’s works on A.S. Puskin. Although the majority of scholars agree that A.S. Pushkin was not familiar with J. Austen’s novels, there are still many similar features in their works, especially in the novels “Pride and Prejudice” and “Eugene Onegin”. This similarity of motives, character types, modes of behavior, and certain rituals occurs very much due to the fact that both authors were, on the one hand, very much influenced by the English sentimentalism and, on the other hand, depicted not only the same historical period, but also a similar socio-cultural milieu – the life of the country gentry. Therefore, a very important role in the works under consideration is played by the nature and its interaction with the main characters and ball – an essential part of the country life, where many crucial events take place. Having analyzed the works in question, the conclusion was made that it is possible to talk about the typological affinity caused by the similarity of the socio-cultural situation, on the one hand, and A.S. Pushkin’s great interest in English literature, on the other hand. The “meeting” of the two artists occurred in the close space of the country life, which, nevertheless, allowed them to create bright, colorful pictures of this world. However, while J. Austen’s novels were completely limited to family matters, A.S. Pushkin considered them only part of a much larger conception.
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Seven novels written by four Turkish female writers in the last ten years are under consideration. The main task is to find out the common in problematics, literary techniques associated with the specifics of gender perception in the Turkish female novel. The painful transformation process of the traditionalist views on gender roles in the family and society under the pressure of new norms and standards of the globalized world is in the focus of female authors. The gender approach to the analysis of Turkish literary works appeared with the author’s awareness of her feminine essence, as opposed to the masculine point of view dominating in the life and literature. The previously taboo topics started being discussed due to the process of women writers’ self-identification The literary heroine is represented as a so-called “traumatic subject”. The theme of violence against a girl, woman caused by a man, her parents, and relatives permeates the narrative. The main conflicts of novels concern parents’ relationship, as well as mother-daughter and father-daughter relationships. The method of “autobiographical confession” dominates in modern women’s writing. The critical feminine look at the private and social life of parents, blaming them for the unsuccessfulness of their children in their future adult life are new for the Turkish female novel. The chronotope of these novels is characterized by a wide geographical coverage and non-linearity of time, sometimes its cyclicality. The discontinuity of time is provided by the character’s associative reminiscences (also through the inclusion of old letters and diaries in the narrative) which interrupt the time sequence.
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The paper deals with the Kazan period of life of A.P. Georgievskii (1888–1955), who was the philologist, ethnographer, historian-archivist, as well as one of the founders of Far Eastern University. The importance of this research is determined by the recently rising interest in the heritage and biographies of eminent Russian scientists, history of the development and cooperation of academic schools (especially regional), and intellectual history as a whole. The purpose of the paper is to systematize the material concerning the main activities of A.P. Georgievskii during his staying in Kazan (1914–1918). The absence of any monographs on that subject determines the novelty of this paper. According to the aforementioned purpose, biographical, comparative, and typological methods are used. This paper provides many examples, which prove that educational work was the main activity of A.P. Georgievskii in Kazan. Firstly, it is discovered that A.P. Georgievskii was actively involved in the Russian discussion of questions about the educational reform, which were topical at the beginning of the 20th century: about organization of the educational process, teaching of Russian literature at schools, creating literature for children, etc. Secondly, we revealed a whole complex of techniques for learning and teaching of literature at schools, forms of the organization of extracurricular reading with account of developmental psychology, individual characteristics of students, modern level of development of literature and literary science, pedagogics and psychology. Thirdly, it is shown that all new teaching techniques, forms and types of lessons (composition on the picture, literary discussions, literary feasts, extracurricular Gospel reading, etc.) were approved by the second non-classical secondary school where A.P. Georgievskii worked as a teacher of Russian language and literature. Finally, the effectiveness of practical activities of the teacher-researcher in Kazan is illustrated by the analysis of his papers, reviews of student’s books of the Russian language and literature, manuals, and supplementary reading books, which were in a very high demand at the beginning of the century. Based on the results of this research, it was concluded that the Kazan period had a great importance in the formation of A.P. Georgievskii’s science and pedagogical views and interests, which defined his subsequent fortune and character of research in the Far East. The integral system of literary education of students created by the teacher-researcher is valid up to the present moment. The results of the study are very important for development of the scientific biography of A.P. Georgievskii, as well as for research in the sphere of history of science about literature, history of education, and local literary history.
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In this article inchoative verbs in three Slavonic languages: Bulgarian (southern group), Polish (western group) and Belarusian (eastern group) are analyzed. The basic reasons for the observed quantitative differences in terms of inchoative verbs in the three studied languages are explained. The adopted semantic analysis made it possible to determine the regularities in the creation of inchoative verbs and to describe the semantic classes characterized by a greater productivity of inchoative verbs in them.
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Sphota is a specific concept from the Indian linguistic and philosophical tradition, which has no analogue in Western linguistics. Sphota is the word in the mind or the mental sound that "illuminates" the signified. The concept is presented systematically by the ancient Indian philosopher and grammarian Bhartrihari in his treatise About the sentence and the word. Among the main features of the concept are integrity, lack of sequence and temporal specificity. It transmits its own form together with the meaning. Furthermore, the form has a leading position. From the standpoint of modern psycholinguistics, the ideas of Bhartrihari are more consonant with the connectionist language and less with the serial ones.
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The paper reviews the different hypotheses on the origin of the verb патя and its derivatives. The analysis applies a number of approaches: formal, semantic, synchronic and areal-georgraphic. The verb is compared to its cognates in Romanian păţi, Aromanian pat, Albanian pësoj, pësonj, Macedonian пати, and Serbo-Croatian пàтити. The forms and uses of the verb in medieval documents are traced. The research aims to answer the question whether the vulgar Latin *patīre < classical Latin pătior or the Greek πάσχω, παθαίνω is the more likely prototype or source for the Bulgarian verb. The hypothesis is formulated that the verb and its derivatives in Bulgarian, as well as in some other Balkan and South- Slavic languages, cannot be traced to a uniform, single source of origin and should be interpreted as belonging to different temporal layers of borrowings.
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The present research analyses the content of the terms palatal and palatalized consonants. Their interpretations the linguistic literature in English, Bulgarian and Romanian are compared. The debate around the existence of soft consonants in the phonetic systems of the Bulgarian and the Romanian languages is traced back, as well as the terminological diversity in their denomination.
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The article is devoted to an analysis of the hyponyms of the lexeme złodziej in the history of the Polish language. The research that was conducted is representative of the trend of diachronic linguistics and its aim will be to present the complete evolution of the vocabulary concentrated upon the field that is analysed. The material that is presented in the article was excerpted from dictionary sources. In the units that are analysed the main semantic elements which enabled us to divide the material that was collected into two groups were distinguished. The first group contains hyponyms of the lexeme złodziej which emphasise the feature of a thief. The second group contains lexemes which emphasise the manner in which the theft is committed. The main premise of the article is to present the semantic changes which occurred in the field of the hyponyms of the lexeme thief. Another crucial point of the article is associated with etymological investigations whose purpose is to present the origin of the units that are studied.
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The majority of the changes which occur in a language may be perceived only from the perspective of the time that elapses. This is a result of the duration of the process which influences a language. This regularity refers also to semantic changes which are influenced inter alia by the evaluation of the properties of referents – the property of a given object which will turn out to be the most important one for the users of a language frequently determines the direction of the changes. The present article contains considerations about the semantics of the word rzecz ‘thing’ associated with its etymology and the other meanings of this word which are a result of the etymology. The plurality of the thematic groups in which one could place the derivatives of the word rzecz is associated with the polysemy of this word. Obviously, the ambiguity of the word-building basis is not the only reason for the lack of semantic relations between the lexemes which are motivated by this base – the changes of the meanings of the particular derivatives are also important. The text is an attempt at answering the questions about inter alia the semantic relation of such words derived from rzecz such as rzeczownik rzeczywisty, rzecznik, grzeczny, niedorzeczny, rzeczowy with the etymon.
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The aim of this article is to describe the discourse of personified Death in the selected works of European art and literature from the 12th to the 17th century. The article deals with five discursive situations: questioning Death by a man in verse and prosaic disputations and in dialogues in the paintings and woodcuts of the danse macabre, sending Death to man in Helinand of Froidmont’s poems and in morality plays based on the Everyman theme, dispraising Death by the dolce stil nuovo authors, Dante, Petrarch, Johannes von Tepl, as well as Polish Renaissance and Baroque poets, summoning Death in Polish sermons of the 17th century, and finally ridiculing Death in a number of Old Polish dramatic works reflecting the carnival tradition. The analysis proved that the discourse of personified Death functioned in various contexts, had diverse forms and performed many functions. It primarily functioned in the context of Christian eschatology as the doctrine about the last things. The interaction between Death and man also employed satire and farce to mock the representatives of all social strata. On the other hand, addressing personified Death in love and funeral poetry was an emotional contemplation on the loss of a loved one.
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The aim of the considerations featured in the article is to distinguish the most important values, with special reference to social values, to which the female candidates who pursued the office of the president of the Republic of Poland referred to in their electoral campaigns – Henryka Bochniarz in 2005 and Magdalena Ogórek in 2015. In the electoral discourse each politician uses a certain set of values which he or she considers relevant and efficient in his or her message and ones which are consistent with his or her ideology, therefore the author of the article suggests to examine more closely the ways of evaluating reality that both female candidates embraced and analyses the similarity (and the variety) or convergence (and divergence) of the values which these candidates emphasise and support.
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The article has the nature of a general overview (inter alia it furnishes an overview of publications in the field of neurolinguistics). The author seeks an answer to the following question: where (and) how the units of speech (of language and speech) are located in the brain. The work consists of a number of parts. In the first chapter the author focuses on the nervous system (the object of neurological research). In the second chapter the author focuses on the linguistic capacity (the object of linguistic research). Both chapters distinguish the units of the brain and speech to which researchers refer in their attempts to describe the relationship between language and the brain. The third chapter alludes to (and classifies) the most recent achievements in the field of neuroscience about the lateralisation and localisation of the linguistic functions in the brain. Eventually the units of human speech are ascribed to the selected areas in the brain. The final part of the work contains a comprehensive bibliography of the subject.
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This article presents several lexical and syntactic structures characteristic of scientific texts. Markers of comparison such as être identique à, différer de, comme are one element of the analyzed structures. The proposed analyses treat phraseology in a wider context (phraséologie étendue) and are a part of a broader research on motive.
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The present paper examines in detail the predicative nouns of smell and of sound in contemporary Russian. It more specifically focuses on the structures ‘Noun of smell or odor + specifiers (“noun” in the genitive)’. The predicates mentioned are divided into groups according to the semantic nature of the specifiers: concrete noun, abstract noun, place name. They express the cause of the smell or sound. The features of each subset are described emphasizing the similarities and differences existing between the sounds on the one hand and the smells on the other.
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Jewish Legends and old rabbinical Traditions could be find in the Hystoriography of the Carmelite Order. In its Beginnings in Europe the Legends served to defend the biblical Identity of the Order. The Article deals with a Study about two Examples of Jewish Legends: 1. Jonah as the Son of the Widow, 2. Elijahs Water-Miracle (10 Springs Gushing from his Fingers).
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In her novel Remarkable Creatures, Tracy Chevalier tries to retrace the representation of women in the past, by focusing on a less known problem: the contribution of two women paleontologists of the 19th century, a time when the access of women in science was forbidden. The “remarkable creatures” are not the only fossils they discover; the women themselves are seen as «curiosities» in a world dominated by men. The novel is based on a double perspective, on a dialogue between the two main characters, Elizabeth Philpot and Mary Anning, who display alternative aspects of femininity (women’s friendship, women’s role in the Victorian society, the contradiction between the two women’s free spirit expressed in science and the religious dogma of the time).
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