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Evliya Celebi was an enlightened man in a variety of ways who believed in equality, freedom of thought and intellectual debate, and found all of these things present in Islamic societies. Over the course of his travels, he wrote ten volumes detailing his adventures. ‘Seyahatname’ – Book of Travels – is a unique and important text, representing one of the few accounts of the 17th century and the Ottoman world from the perspective of a Muslim. These are not just factual accounts, Evliya had a great imagination and just as important as his journal entries were the imaginative storytelling that ran alongside, elaborating, exaggerating, and fantasizing. Through his stories, we are prompted to think more imaginatively about our own travels and journeys to other cities. This 17th-century Muslim traveler can sometimes seem narrow-minded and yet this same man can stand in St Stephens Cathedral in Vienna and be moved by the music he hears. Sometimes these encounters lead to nothing but sometimes they lead to stories which are so deeply felt, and so universally melodic that they leave echoes which can still be heard and felt today. In 2011, the year which would have been his 400th birthday, Evliya is being paid homage as UNESCO’s Man of the Year.
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The period between the Battle of Kosovo (1389) and the formation of the eyelets of Buda (1541) and Temesvár (1552) was marked by the breakthrough of the Ottomans in the Danube region and their struggle with Serbia (until 1459) and Hungary to master this area. It is also the medieval period richest in sources for the study of social and economic history and historical geography of the Serbian Podunavlje and Posavina (the Danube and the Sava region). This paper presents a review of previous research on this issue, points out the main historical sources and problems that they put in front of researchers and presents the latest research results, in part resulting from the author’s research. The „land” (zemlja) in medieval Serbia was greater territorial and administrative unit, which included several župas (districts). In the area of northern Serbia, in Posavina, there was the “land” of Mačva, and in Podunavlje the “land” of Kučevo and Braničevo. More recent studies have defined the borders of specified areas and corrected earlier misconceptions about the propagation of the Hungarian government in northwestern Serbia in the late Middle Ages, caused by equalizing the Mačva “land” and the Hungarian Banat of Mačva (Macsó). The Hungarian Banat of Mačva was at that time confined to a narrow area next to the Sava with several fortresses and their districts. By change in the Hungarian-Serbian relations in the first half of 15th century, these regions were connected to the Serbian state until the Ottoman conquest in 1458/1459. Kučevo, which expanded between the rivers Velika Morava, Danube, Jasenica and the mountains of Avala and Kosmaj, was in administrative terms united with the “land” of Braničevo. However, during the 14th and the 15th century Kučevo survived as a particular geographical area. Comparing the data on settlements provided by Serbian charters with material from the Ottoman censuses – defters, one can get a picture of their continuity and discontinuity, which indirectly indicates depopulation during the warfare that led to the collapse of the Serbian state. Such research in the area of Braničevo shows that half of the villages of Braničevo completely lost their inhabitants during the Ottoman subjugation of Serbia. The comparison of the data of the medieval and Ottoman sources also showed a kind of continuity in economic centres – market places in the area of Braničevo. The Ottoman defters have shown that there were a large number of settlements in the Serbian Danube and the Sava region in the second half of the 15th and the first decades of the 16th century, but they were mostly small. Archaeological excavations provide valuable findings on the appearance of the settlements and way of life in the Danube and the Sava region. The Ottoman defters provide the insight into the economic structure in rural settlements during the second half of the 15th and early 16 century. The defters enable to obtain a relatively accurate picture of the proportional representation of crops in total production. On this basis, it may be noted that wheat was grown most of all the cereals (about 35%), followed by barley, rye, millet, oats. Among other crops, in addition to growing fruits and vegetables, followed by flax and hemp, vine was grown to a large extent.
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For centuries the territory of the South Slavs was a scene of conflict between the East and the West. Long and bitter religious disputes raged, with the Bogomils, the Eastern Orthodox, and the Roman Catholics struggling for dominance. the Ottoman Turks succeeded in conquering the entire Balkans by the end of the fifteenth century, the process of Islamization gradually extended over a large part of the Yugoslav lands. The Ottomans did not, for the most part, impose their faith on the newly conquered peoples, with the exception of boys taken into the janizaty and spahi corps. The Orthodox and Catholic churches suffered almost no hindrance in the exercise of their beliefs. But members of the Moslem faith were preferred for government positions and were given other favors by the government. As a result, many Yugoslavs went over to Islam. The nobility accepted Islam in order to preserve their privileged social position and wealth, to protect themselves from Turkish and Albanian attacks, and to escape the blood tax.
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𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎 is a multilingual collection of papers presented at the international scientific conference that has been organized by the Department of Classical and Eastern Languages and Cultures of St. Cyril and St. Methodius University of Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria) since 2002. Until 2015, the conference was held annually. Since 2018, it is held once every two years. St Cyril and St Methodius University Press issues the collection within the Dr. Nicola Piccolo series. The wide range of topics and the opportunity for authors to submit their academic publications in the original language attracts researchers from all over the world.
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The executive power was represented by the beylerbeyi and the sanjakbey, that is, umera (ehl-i örf) in the Ottoman provincial administration. In the provinces, there were qadis to represent the judiciary. The relations between these two powers were very important in the maintenance of the local administration. So, how was the representation of the executive in legal matters in the Ottoman provinces? What was the attitude of the judiciary in cases where the executive was a party? The aim of this study is to reveal how the cases that were heard in the Konya court at the beginning of the 18th century and that concern the executive power worked. To discuss the role of the governor of Konya in the judicial processes through the mutesellims and mubasirs. In order to achieve these goals, the book number 39 belonging to the Konya court, which was transcribed beforehand, will be used. This study, which aims to reveal the legal relations between the executive and the judiciary in the Ottoman provinces, will make an analysis on a micro scale. Two different litigation process, which gives the impression that it is more of a political case, will be discussed in terms of reflecting the relations between the executive and the judiciary with the case analysis method.
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In this article, which was written with the aim of shedding light on the legal history of the Ottoman Empire in the context of central-provincial relations, being aware of the view that "There is no unspoken word under this dome" and aiming to capture "a pleasant sadâ that remains in this dome", this article deals with the courts, which are the basis of the Ottoman justice mechanism. In this context, after making a brief introduction to the establishment of social life and relations, which form the bridge between elements of the state and the the reaya and which takes its essence from Islam, the factors of the Ottoman court, their areas of influence and jurisdiction and some cases heard in this court will be included in the study. In the Ottoman court, first of all the muslim judges (kadi), the regents (naib) appointed by the muslim judges, the imams who are the eyes and ears of the muslim judges in the neighborhoods, the subasis who constitute the police force of the districts, the prohibitionists (ases), the castle guards (dizdars) and the muhtesibs are connected to each other through a network of relations. In our study, based on this network, the roles of these officials, who are shown among the main Ottoman court officials, will be discussed. In the understanding of the Islamic and Ottoman state, in which each of these officials played an active role, the justice mechanism shows a political integrity. However, within this mechanism, a spatial distinction is made in the form of kaza, nahiye and mahalle. This distinction is intended to facilitate the functioning of the justice mechanism. As it comes to an end, it shows the diversity of litigation issues reflected in the courts in Ottoman society. Therefore, the approach to the The foundations that undertook important missions in many fields in the Islamic states reached their peak in parallel with the development of the governments, especially with the Ottoman Empire. Correspondingly, there were changes also in their activities and management methods. In Islamic law where interest is not taken kindly, using the montes pietatis as a means of trade and charity for the good of the people was one of the changes mentioned. In spite of the arguments and criticism about the montes pietatis, most of the ulama of that period mentioned that this process was a kind of trade that could be briefly described as buying for cash and selling on trust, and they issued fatwa on that it was in accordance with Islamic Sharia. With this structuring that is ratified, banking business in Islamic states was founded, and the people fulfilled their need of cash from these foundations instead of usurers.
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As a field of research, Ottoman war history become enriched on the aspect of resources, research papers and methods. Particularly new findings are on the production of weaponsand their technology, military installations, logistics of war, strategies of wars, provisions, soldier enrollment, payments and assignment. Those developments on the subject is thanks to discoveries about the field evidences, new archive sources, maps, and similar collections and economic supports to the researches. Its been known that Ottomans recorded their actions since the beginning. Because of this there are lots of diffrent kinds of written sources in the “Devlet Arşivleri Başkanlığı”. Those documents are particular importance to the states, historians and institutions. One of those particular written source is “Kale Mühimmat Defterleri”. Those series of documents includes the primary informations on Ottoman castles and castle organisation and ammunition. This work focuses on the castle ammunion and syllabus records wich has a list concerning on the ammunition and other tools wich used at war. The aims of this work are to describe the form and function of those records and explain their contents and survey their importance on the basis of military and organisational history. To make clearly understandable the informations on those records have, five of them selected to be examined. And on the proper places in the work other similar records used to enrichment of the subject. Document examination method has been used this work and within the plan the informations on those records listed.
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Aydın vilayetinin idari taksimatında, 1864 Vilayet Nizamnamesinde yapılan yeniliklerin bir neticesi olarak 1867 yılında önemli değişikliklere gidilmiştir. İdari bakımdan XIX. yüzyıla kadar Aydın sancağına bağlı bir kaza olarak mevcut durumunu koruyan Alaşehir, 1867 yılına gelindiğinde ise ulaşım kolaylığı nedeniyle Saruhan (Manisa) sancağına bağlanmıştır. Kuzeyinde Kula ve Eşme, doğusunda Buldan, güneyinde Buldan ve Nazilli, batısında ise Salihli ve Ödemiş kazaları yer almaktadır. Osmanlı döneminde ticaret yollarının yanı sıra askeri yollar bakımından da önemini korumayı başaran Alaşehir, ulaşım bakımından Manisa-Denizli ve İzmir-Uşak-Afyon güzergâhı üzerinde önemli bir konuma sahip olmuştur. Kula-Selendi ve Demirci’ye uzanan tali bir yolla şehrin ulaşım imkânları kuzeye doğru genişlemiştir. Bunların yanı sıra geçitlerle Bozdağları aşan bir başka yolla Kiraz ve Ödemiş’e, oradan da bütün Küçük Menderes Havzasına bağlanmıştır.
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In the history of the Ottoman Empire, the term Classical Age is generally used for the period before the declaration of the 1839 Tanzimat Ferman. Undoubtedly, at the beginning of the biggest events faced by the Ottoman Empire in its 623-year historical adventure, which left a great mark on the world history, are the rebellions it experienced. Revolt literally means a revolt against the current administration in our dictionaries, but what kind of military rebellions took place in the Ottoman Empire, one of the largest states the world has ever seen. Were the reasons behind the riots purely political? What was the attitude of the people in the face of these rebellions? Some riots were so effective that they could not bring the people out of the streets and open their shops, which paralyzed daily life. These revolts led to the lives of which sultans. What did the people and the state do? Where were the Janissaries, the first regular army that European history had ever seen, in these rebellions?
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Since the existence of humanity, medicine has been a scientific field that has maintained its importance in human life up to the present day. Wherever humans exist, diseases have also become inevitable, and every nation's people have applied the methods that they or their predecessors used to treat and prevent diseases, either by passing them down orally or by reading and implementing written works. At this point, the science of medicine has also been of great importance for Turks and has become a scientific field. Ultimately, they have developed their unique treatment methods in the geographies where they appeared on the historical stage - in the Göktürks, Uyghurs, Seljuks, and Ottoman periods - over centuries. In doing so, they have contributed with many plants, medicines, tools, and disease names. Historical texts are an important bridge from the past to the future for nations, and these works must be examined. Medical texts are also among these historical texts, and they must be examined as well. Because the data obtained from them will also contribute to the culture and literary history of that nation. When we look at the Turkish approach to medical texts, a process that began with the Uyghurs continued with the creation of many works in Anatolia. The work named Tibb-i Kimya´i written by Omer b. Sinan el-Izniki is also one of these sources. The work, which dates back to the 18th century, was written in Classical Ottoman Turkish. In terms of medicine during this period, it was the era when Western medicine and therefore medical terminology began to enter through Arabic and Persian. In the study, while information about the author of the work is given, its content and the author's other works are also evaluated. With the study, another historical medical text from the eighteenth century was introduced, and it aimed to provide a source for scientists and researchers with a work from the Classical Ottoman Turkish period. A comprehensive study to be conducted on the work in the future can reveal its contribution, particularly in terms of plant disease and medicine names, as well as language evaluations.
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In this study, the cancer disease mentioned in Kitab-ı Tercüme-i Tezkire-i Dâvûd Fî İlmüt't-Tıbb (KTDT) and the recommended treatment methods for the cure of this disease are included. This work is the translation of Dâvûd-ı Antakî's famous medical book into 17th century Turkish. However, the translation includes only the third part of Antakî's translation of his work Teẕkiretü Uli'l-Elbāb ve'l-Cāmiü li'l-Acebi'l-Ucāb, whose meaning is notes to the wise, a compilation of unknowns and oddities. In the third part of the work, drugs, foods, animal products, minerals to be used for treatment are given and explained in Arabic alphabet order. In the work, drugs, their properties, their equivalents to be used in their place, the mixtures to be made from them and their usage patterns, warnings and precautions about the relevant drugs are introduced. In this respect, the work shows an intense quality of pharmacy as well as medicine. However, like all medical texts, it is seen that the work also includes subjects other than medicine and these are discussed. In the scan made in the relevant text, it was noticed that there were also data on cancer, which is one of the important health problems of today. It has been thought that the explanation and description of the treatments related to this should be considered as it is thought that it will contribute to the history of Turkish medicine, especially the history of world medicine. The data obtained need to be evaluated separately by physicians, chemists, biologists and pharmacists from the field of medicine. Therefore, the cancer treatments that will be given here are by no means intended to be a treatment recommendation. It has been tried to describe cancer-related suggestions from the knowledge of a physician who lived and wrote his work in the Ottoman borders only in the 16th century. Of course, it is hoped that the data of the study will contribute to positive sciences by examining whether it will contribute to the treatment of a disease that is feared and deadly for today by those who deal with medical science in the future.
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Beberuhi is an Ottoman satirical newspaper that began its publication in Geneva with its first issue on February 1, 1898. Due to its opposition to the Abdulhamid Administration during that period, like other opposition press outlets, it had to continue its publication outside Istanbul. The satirical newspapers in exile, referred to as “hezeyannâme (delirium)” by the Ottoman government and labeled as “erbâb-ı fesad (mischief-makers)" by its owners, constitute extremely important arguments for researchers to gain insights into the opposition currents and influences of the era. The publication life of Beberuhi in Geneva was relatively short-lived. Beberuhi can be described as one of the rare works of Ottoman humor publications. Like other publications that operated outside Istanbul between 1878 and 1908 due to prevailing conditions, Beberuhi also managed to enter Ottoman territories through clandestine means. The newspaper adopted reflecting the views of the Committee of Union and Progress (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti) as its main publishing principle. Considering the general character of the newspaper, its attitude summarized by the concept of "disobedience" is understood to be directed not towards the spiritual power and state identity of the Ottoman Empire (Devlet-i Âl-i Osmânî (State-i Âl-i Osmânî)), but directly towards Sultan Abdulhamid II and his actions. In this study, Beberuhi newspaper, which was known for its opposition ideas during the reign of Abdulhamid II and embraced a form of disobedience against the authority of the era, has been examined. Within the scope of the study, only four issues of Beberuhi could be accessed throughout its short publication life. Based on the available issues of the newspaper, namely the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 5th, the panorama of the Abdulhamid II era is presented from the perspective of an opposition publication.
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History, on the one hand, refers to the whole of time-sequential events in past periods, and on the other hand, it is a science that tries to explain these events, whose subjects are human beings and societies, within the framework of cause and effect. While the practical equivalent of people's production-division and expenditure relations is called economy, the science of economics focuses on solving the problems arising from the functioning of these material foundations. In this direction, it tries to find a balanced correspondence between people's economic aspirations and the resources available to meet these aspirations. Economic history, on the other hand, lies at the intersection of history and economics and examines the economic activities of past periods and the institutions built on these activities from a long-term perspective. The importance of a long-term perspective here lies in the fact that, in contrast to the short-term character of political events, economic changes and trends can take their course in the long run. Despite the multiplicity of commonalities, economic history is a field of economics, not of history, since it examines the issues that come into existence in the time sequence of history within the framework of the characteristics of the science of economics. While a history of the world economy can be written with a general approach, subjective economic histories can also be written by considering certain sub-divisions such as geography, etc. The study of Ottoman-Turkish economic history is of this kind. In particular, the loss of the validity of linear approach theories of economic development has made the importance of Ottoman-Turkish economic history studies even more evident. The starting point of economic history research in Turkey can be traced back to the Anatolian Seljuk Empire (1075). Thus, economic history studies in Turkey can be emphasized in three main categories: the pre-Ottoman period, the Ottoman period and the Republican period. In this broad time span, it is important to open a separate parenthesis for the Ottoman economic history since the Ottoman period is the dominant period. It is possible to study the field of history of Ottoman economy by understanding the Ottoman economic system and explaining the problems faced by the economic practices operating around this system and the changes and transformations carried out to eliminate these problems in the context of cause and effect. This study aims at the first step. By approaching the material foundations of Ottoman society from a holistic perspective, the study aims to reveal the outlines of the Ottoman economic system in the context of framework, problem and mentality. For this purpose, deductive reasoning is adopted when using the analytical tools of economics to interpret historical events that can be materially grounded, and inductive reasoning is adopted when interpreting the findings and drawing general conclusions.
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Erzurum şehrinin Bizans İmparatoru II. Theodosios döneminde kurulduğu bilinmektedir. Ermeniler tarafından Karin denilen şehir Türklerin Erzen (Çetin, 1998: 7-8) denilen ovayı feth etmeleri (1048-1049) ile Türk hâkimiyetine girmiştir. Bu dönemde Erzen olarak adlandırılan bölgeyi Bitlis’te bulunan Erzen’den ayırmak için Erzen-i Rum olarak isimlendirmişlerdir.
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Birinci Dünya müharibəsi illərində Rusiya İstanbula, onun ətrafındakı boğazlara, Şərqi Anadoluya yiyələnmək, Türkiyəni zəiflətmək, Cənubi Qafqazda möhkəmlənmək üçün erməni silahlı dəstələrinin fəaliyyətindən istifadə etmiş, Türkiyə daxilində yaşayan ermənilərin hökumətə qarşı qiyamlar etməsini təşkil etmişdir. Rus ordusunda Qərb və Qafqaz cəbhəsində 300 min erməni vuruşurdu. Eyni zamanda Erməni milli şurası Çar Rusiyası ilə ermənilərin könüllü dəstələrinin yaradılması barədə razılaşmışdılar. Rusiya hakim dairələri ermənilərdən istifadə etmək üçün “erməni məsələsi”ni ortaya atırdılar. Ermənilər müharibədə Van, Bitlis, Tiqranakert, Ərzurum, Xarberd və Sebastiya, həmçinin Klikiyanın daxil olduğu ərazilərin Türkiyədən alınaraq özlərinin erməni dövlə tini yaratmaq, “erməni məsələsi”ni həll etmək məqsədilə iştirak edirdilər. Rusiya ermənilərə Böyük Ermənistan yaratmaqda kömək edəcəyini vəd edərək Osmanlı hakimiyyətinə qarşı mübarizə aparmaq üçün erməni drujinalarının yaradılmasını təşkil edir, onları yeni silahlarla silahlandırır, ölkə içərisində silahlı üsyanlar təşkil edirdi. Əslində isə Rusiya, Fransa, İngiltərə müstəqil erməni dövlətinin qurulması üçün çalışmır, Türkiyəyə ermənilərin əli ilə zərbə vurmağa çalışırdılar. Nəticədə erməni hərbi dəstələri Birinci Dünya müharibəsi illərində Şərqi Anadoluda və Qafqazda dinc müsəlman əhalisinə qarşı görünməmiş cinayətlər törətdilər. Ermənilərdən ilk olaraq istifadə etməyə çalışan Fransa, Osmanlı torpaqlarında katolik ermənilərdən, Rusiya pravoslav ermənilərdən, İngiltərə və ABŞ isə protestant ermənilərdən istifadə etmişdir.
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The article analyses selected reports from the second half of the 16th century on the state of the Ottoman military forces facing the Croatian Military Border. Reports were usually written by Habsburg military commanders on the basis of spy reports and various intelligences. Reports analyzed in this article are rather precise and detailed. They were commissioned by the Court War Council in order to provide data on how to reform and restructure Habsburg military potentials on the Croatian Border. An insight into the Ottoman forces clearly suggests that Habsburg forces were fl awed and insufficient in many aspects such as the number of paid infantry and cavalry, the number of unpaid military and the number and condition of functional fortresses. Habsburg reforms that followed attempted to bring more balance into military affairs in the region. In addition to raw figures, reports brought data on the dispersion and usage of Ottoman forces as well as rather comprehensive lists of Ottoman military commanders by name and/or surname. Sometimes they even provided information on their family relations or their background which makes them highly usable in research of Ottoman military and social elites that resided opposite the Croatian Border. In order to facilitate the usage and comparison of data, spy reports are translated from German into Croatian and information are systematized in tables. Transcript of analyzed reports from Gothic into Latin script is attached in the appendix.
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It is very likely that there is no other country in Europe with so many historical ruins as there are in Croatia. Constant raids on Croatian territory of the foreign forces and long lasting belonging of Croatian lands to the foreign states which governments did not take care for its historical heritage, has left many ruins as well as the remains of the old cities, strongholds and other objects from the Antiquity to the present day in very bed condition. Although there is no integral atlas of the medieval and early modern ruins, nevertheless, the various defensive constructions used in anti-Ottoman wars had invoked up significant attention in the recent years. Therefore, in limitation of financial possibilities these objects are researched as well as restored in the recent years as a very important part of the Croatian heritage. Today it is possible to distinguish several types of these anti-Ottoman strongholds. First group are strongholds which has never been conquered by Ottomans, while the second group are strongholds destroyed during the anti-Ottoman wars. Final group are those strongholds constructed by the Viennese court or by the Estates of Carniola and Styria with the aim of stopping the Ottoman advance further to the West. These strongholds finally managed to stop Ottoman advance making thus these parts of Croatian lands the final reach of the Ottoman conquest in the Europe. Finally, the cordon of these strongholds was created and it vividly depicts the efforts of the nobility and the local inhabitants in stopping the Ottoman advance. The remains of these strongholds are in the main focus of this paper which is dedicated to the great researcher of these strongholds – Milan Kruhek.
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Dvostruki je jubilej povezan s poznatim hrvatskim piscem, vjerskim i diplomatskim djelatnikom iz 16. stoljeća, Splićaninom Aleksandrom Komulovićem: 460. obljetnica rođenja i 400. obljetnica smrti. Tom prilikom želim podsjetiti na njegov plodan život i djelovanje, a osobito se osvrnuti na njegove malo poznate prijedloge o organizaciji borbe protiv Osmanlija, u kojima želi zainteresirati i potaknuti Rim za vrijeme i nakon svoje vizitacije katolika u istočnim dijelovima Balkana.
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Shqiptarët dhe bullgarët kanë pasur lidhje të gjata dhe bashkëjetesë të mirë në Gadi-shullin e Ballkanit. Ngjarjet historike dhe shumë shpesh tragjike kanë detyruar grupe të mëdha shqiptare të lëshojnë vendin e tyre dhe të kërkojnë strehë në troje të huaja. Pushtimi i trojeve shqiptare në Ballkan nga ushtritë e huaja (osmane, serbe etj.) është përcjellë me pastrim etnik, me vrasje të shumta, me djegien e fshatrave shqiptare dhe me gjithë mjetet dhunuese të një pushtuesi të egër.
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