Globális versengések metszetei

Author(s): Melinda Kalmár / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 85/2021

As a result of the nuclear power equilibrium, achieved through the post-war American-Soviet race for supremacy, the possibility of direct military conflict decreased significantly from the mid-1950s onwards. At the same time, the arms race between the two superpowers was accompanied by rivalry in all walks of life and the number of domains of such peaceful competition radically increased in the subsequent decades. In this situation, the dynamics of the rivalry between the two superpowers created an entire system of mutual interactions despite their opposition. The extreme diversity of the domains of competition covered vast distances both physically and virtually and followed steep rollercoaster curves across a few decades: competition was present on the ground as well as in space and air, on the surface and in the depths of the seas; it affected international relations as profoundly as it did everyday life. The high amplitude of competition separated and connected parts of the world with divergent world views and formative structures. Rivalry and its reciprocally inspirational effects together created a global climate, that is to say, an expansive civilizational ecosystem, which is now known as a characteristic of the second half of the twentieth century, or, in more simplified terms, as the Cold War.

Dejmek, Jindřich (ed.): Cirkulární telegramy československého ministerstva zahraničních věcí z let komunistického režimu (1956–1989). Cirkulární telegramy MZV 1956–1967/68. Sv. I/1 (1956–1963). Sv. I/2 (1963–1968).

Author(s): Jana Burešová / Language(s): Czech Issue: 61/2021

Monarhia română, 1944-1947. Scurt profil ideologic

Author(s): Emanuel COPILAȘ / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 61/2022

This article tackles the problem of the postwar Romanian monarchy through ideological lens. It aims to bring forward a new doctrinaire perspective upon the monarchical institution in general and king Michael in particular, without trying to minimize in any way the political contributions of king Carol II of Romania’s successor to ending the war in Romania and mitigating as much as possible the consolidation of Soviet influence upon the country.

Soğuk Savaş Siyasetinin Spora Yansıyan Etkileri

Author(s): Seçkin Doğaner,Velittin Balci / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 3/2022

The concept of sports and politics is an event that has occupied the world's economic and political agenda for many years. The social power of sports spreading to large masses has always attracted the attention of political elements. Political actors, especially those who want to stay on the agenda in world politics, wanted to use the social and economic effects of sports during their stay in power. For this reason, they gave importance to mega events and wanted to show their power against other countries. The said power has led to effects that can lead to sanctions over time. Sport; It is not just a social and economic power for the world of politics. At the same time, it is a management tool that can drag people after it. Even this feature alone has caused politicians to use sportive events for their own benefit. With the technological developments, these interest movements accelerated and became an inevitable tool for politicians to show themselves in the global arena during the cold war periods. Because sport has now become one of the biggest means of sanction and showing off for all the states of the world. The most important reason for this situation is the growing volume of the sports sector. This volume of people, which started with athletes, trainers and managers, has become a global power over time. In the research, it has been examined how sports have been used as a political power on the recent war events and it has been examined due to which factors sports have started to be used as such a power in the historical process.

A WAR THAT NEVER ENDS. THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM'S INABILITY TO EMERGE A STABLE POWER STRUCTURE AND A FUNCTIONAL ORDER

Author(s): Anca Dinicu,Dumitru Iancu / Language(s): English Issue: 17/2022

This paper presents the possibility of a new cold war between the West and Russia. The end of the Cold War opened the door to a new era, called to this day in a highly simplistic way - post-Cold War. Aspirations of cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis and perhaps even hopes of cultural unification have been abandoned because of the activation of imperialist reminiscences amid the erosion of Russia's power status in the international security environment. The following aspects should be mentioned as general conclusions of the research. First of all, the relatively unexpected end of this competition fought from antagonistic positions generated a lack of consensus, which has been accentuated as time passed regarding the real causes that determined the event and the moment when it came to a peaceful conclusion. Secondly, the order in an international system is shaped by the power potential of the states and the established power hierarchy, by the way the powerful actors (current, former, or aspiring) define their national interest and fulfill not only their role in the international scene but also the obligations resulting from a common international coexistence.

DEMOCRACY PROMOTION: THE CORNERSTONE OF AMERICA'S FOREIGN POLICY AFTER THE COLD WAR

Author(s): Shefik SHEHU / Language(s): English Issue: 1-2/2020

The spread of democracy in the aftermath of the Cold War seemed destined to replace the policy of containment as one of the most quintessential guiding principles of America’s foreign policy. It was widely embraced in the academic policy-making as well as media circles, that the promotion of democracy was essentially the U.S’s mission in a post-Cold War world. This mission, primarily as a philosophy as well as a diplomatic strategy, is undoubtedly put into life by American idealism, which is nothing other than the belief in progress through reason and deeply enshrined in the Enlightenment’s liberal principles. And it is a absolute truism that a freer and more democratic world contributes to a more secure world, a stronger and more sustainable economic growth, as well as more resilient alliances that offer better lives for their citizens. The paper argues that America’s legacy in democracy promotion , i.e., liberal democracy has benefitted the citizens of the new democracies and ultimately created a safer world. Though democracy is not an event but rather a process that requires the inclusion of multiple stakeholders in a society, that are not necessarily animated equally across the globe , the U.S’s democracy programs have nonetheless contributed statistically as well as realistically for significant improvements in the realm of democracy worldwide, a legacy that cannot as yet be attributed to any other super power in a post-Westphalian world order.

„Taková ostatně byla éra“ Jak fungoval státem řízený doping v Československu z perspektivy vzpírání

Author(s): Vít Poláček / Language(s): Czech Issue: 04/2022

Pro dějiny státem organizovaného systému dopování sportovců v komunistickém Československu a dějiny dopingu ve sportu vůbec můžeme za zlomové považovat letní olympijské hry v Mnichově v roce 1972. Teprve dva roky před jejich konáním totiž mezinárodní atletická federace IAAF uznala anabolické steroidy za doping.1 I přesto ale nebyly v Mnichově ještě organizovány dopingové kontroly, jak je známe dnes. Místo nich v dějišti her proběhla anonymní anketa mezi účastníky, v níž ze vzorku 9 886 respondentů 85 procent přiznalo užití prostředků spadajících do této kategorie.

Odchody a návraty pilota a herečky

Author(s): Dušan Segeš / Language(s): Czech Issue: 04/2022

The story of the Kasals in the context of intelligence games for Radio Free Europe and campaigns for the return of political emigrants in the fifties

The Reagan Administration and the End of the Cold War, II

Author(s): Susana Bocșaru / Language(s): English Issue: 1-2/2006

On November 4, 1980 Reagan won a sweeping victory, carrying 489 electoral college votes to Carter’s 49, a decisive ten to one margin, and 51% of the popular votes to 41% for Carter. Reagan ran on a platform that called for a decisive foreign policy, “peace through strength”, a clear break with Carter’s “vacillating” policy of “chaos, confusion and failure”. This concept aimed at reversing the decline of the U.S. power relative to the Soviet Union’s, establishing the U.S. as the leader of the “free world” in the fight against communism, because “the President’s failure to shoulder the burden of leadership in the Western alliance has placed America in danger without parallel since December 7, 1941”. But most importantly it aimed at restoring “to our great nation its self-respect, its self-confidence, and its national pride”. It was basically a policy of confrontation.

Rivalitate și confruntare geostrategică între Est și Vest în timpul Războiului Rece. Comportamentul geopolitic al României

Author(s): Constantin Hlihor / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 3-4/2022

The purpose of this article is to provide a view on the Romanian's communist regime activity on the international stage, in the context of the geostrategic rivalry between the U.S.S.R. and the United States. The author emphasizes the way the rivals perceive each other military, political, economic power, the grounds of confrontation and especially the two superpowers’ attitude towards their allies. Also, the research focuses on those events in which Romanian communist leaders took domestic and international policy decisions, in direct relation to the perception or error of perception of geopolitical developments arising from the geostrategic rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States of America.

»V šolah ni mesta za politično propagando« (J. P. Simoni) - Slovensko šolstvo na Tržaškem in Goriškem pred podpisom Pariške mirovne pogodbe in po njem v luči zapisnika seje o tekočih vprašanjih šolstva z dne 6. avgusta 1946

Author(s): Tomaž Simčič / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 2/2022

The aim of this article is to present the state of Slovenian education in the Zone A of the former Julian March before and after the signature of the Paris Peace Treaty on 10 February 1947. It draws on the minutes of the session held on 6 August 1946 at the headquarters of the Allied Military Government in Trieste, as this session was intended for the review of the first school year after the liberation from Nazifascism. The minutes are kept in the historical archives of the Trieste provincial office for Slovenian education and have never before been the subject of historical analysis. They reveal the school system’s main difficulties, which were the subject of a fierce clash of different political factors in the immediate post-war period. The author compares the findings obtained from these minutes with the findings of the scientific literature on the same topic. In the second part of the paper, the author discusses the changes that occurred after 15 September 1947, when the provisions of the Paris Peace Treaty came into force. He draws particular attention to the various consequences of this historic step for the Slovenian schools in Trieste and Gorizia.

Soğuk Savaş Yıllarında Türkiye’nin Doğusunda Rus Casusluk Faaliyetleri: Erzurum Örneği

Author(s): Firdes Temizgüney / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 32/2023

In the 1950’s, when the Cold War struggle gained momentum, Türkiye was one of the countries in which Soviet Russia, which carried out espionage actions in many countries, tried to be effective. The Russians engaged in intense espionage action in the eastern provinces as well as in Istanbul and Ankara. Many spy scandals, the arrest and trial of captured spies marked this period. Türkiye, feeling itself under the direct threat of Soviet Russia, determined upper-limit penalties for captured Russian spies. Moreover, in fact that both of the two espionage cases given the death penalty between 1950-1960 were applied to those who spied on behalf of Russia, is important in terms of showing Türkiye’s sensitivity to Russian espionage actions. The espionage incident in Erzurum, which was the subject of one of these two cases, was the eastern reflection of Russia’s expansionist policy, which coincided with is ongoing ambitions. In this study, the nature of the espionage activities, carried out by Soviet Russia in the east of Türkiye was discussed on the basis of Russian espionage case, took place in Erzurum in 1953.

WYKORZYSTANIE RADZIECKICH EMIGRANTÓW DOBY DÉTENTEW PRAKTYCE DZIAŁAŃ 1. ZARZĄDU GŁÓWNEGO KGB I WSPÓŁCZESNE REMINISCENCJE TEGO ZJAWISKA. CASUSSTANÓW ZJEDNOCZONYCH AMERYKI

Author(s): Leszek Pawlikowicz / Language(s): Polish Issue: 04/2022

The article - on the basis of American official and court documents (relating to four documented cases of espionage between 1975 and 1991) and using empirical, quantitative and comparative methods - for the first time comprehensively analyses the activities carried out for the benefit of the KGB foreign intelligence service by emigrants from the USSR who arrived in the United States between 1971 and 1984. In addition to describing the scale and peculiarities of the aforementioned migration wave, the four main directions of their operational work are presented, as well as the development of new forms of interaction between Russian emigrants and the new Russian intelligence services after 1991.

Becoming an Army on Operations: Bundeswehr and the German Foreign Policy in the Post-Cold War Period

Author(s): Hazal Can,Murat Önsoy / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

The present study analyses the increasing involvement of the Bundeswehr in international military operations since the re-unification in 1990 with the aim of displaying the gradual loosening of the civilian power concept and the deeply engrained culture of military restraint in German foreign policy. It is argued that after the reunification, Germany gradually breaks free from the cultural restraints that hindered the utilization of military power in foreign policy. In this regard, the first step was Bundeswehr’s involvement in multilateral, non-combat, peace-keeping and peace-making operations under the auspices of the NATO and the UN throughout the 1990’s. The second step came with Bundeswehr’s involvement in the Kosovo War, which was Germany’s first ever participation in a large scale combat operation since the World War II. Since then, the limits of the German culture of military restraint have been pushed further and the Bundeswehr has been actively deployed across the globe, signaling a more assertive role for Berlin in international affairs. This article finally asserts that, as evident in the Zeitenwende (historic turning point) speech of the German Chancellor Olaf Scholz, the Russian occupation of Ukraine in early 2022 has opened a new era in German foreign and security policy, in which the Bundeswehr is likely to play a greater role.

Cooperation, Competition, and Control: the Founding and the Development of the “Gemischte Gesellschaft” of the VEB Carl Zeiss Jena in London (1964-1989)

Author(s): Lena Senoner / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2022

This article deals with the so-called Gemischte Gesellschaften (joint ventures), a special form of economic cooperation between the GDR and the West. Using the example of the Gemischte Gesellschaft of the foreign trade organization of Carl Zeiss Jena in London, the article outlines its foundation in the 1960s and its development from the 1970s to 1989. The article reveals that the Gemischte Gesellschaft was a comparably successful form of distribution for the VEB Carl Zeiss but also points out the different problems it faced. Furthermore, the article argues that the Gemischte Gesellschaften were a space of cooperation between West and East, but also assisted the GDR to assert its economic interests against the Western competition in capitalistic markets. The case study illustrates that in order to overcome the contradictions between cooperation and competition between East and West, control mechanisms were necessary to ensure that the interests of the socialist state were enforced within the Gemischte Gesellschaften.

Auta pro faráře. Materiální pomoc protestantských církví přes železnou oponu v 70. a 80. letech 20. století

Author(s): Ladislav Beneš / Language(s): Czech Issue: 2/2022

During the 1970s and 1980s, the pastors of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren regularly received cars as gifts from their partners in the Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland. This was a form of aid that Protestants in Czechoslovakia received from their West German partners. However, the transfers had to be approved by representatives of the Secretariat for Church Affairs. Through analyzing the selection of the pastors who received the cars and the process of approving of the foreign donations, we can show how the disciplination by the state authorities was carried out. It can also shed a light on how the pastors themselves were disciplined by their ecclesiastical superiors. The research further shows that the car deliveries during the Cold War were made possible by the long-standing relationship between Protestants from Czech and German countries that goes back well into the 19th century.

Renzo De Felice in njegovo razumevanje italijanskega fašizma

Author(s): Matic Batič / Language(s): Slovenian Issue: 2/2021

The paper presents the Italian historian Renzo De Felice and his historiographical treatment of Italian fascism. In Italy, his research in the 1970s marked a turning point in the historical consensus on the subject up to that time. Hence, his work has been accompanied by several polemics that have often left the framework of scientific debate. In the first part of the paper, De Felice’s claims are confronted with his critics’ reproaches, while in the second part the article endeavours to explain the background of the polemic, presenting the specific socio-cultural situation in the Italy of that time and its impact on historiography on the fascist period. The discussion concludes that De Felice’s work, despite some contentious points, is currently considered as indispensable for all modern researchers of this period of Italian history.

Wpływ zimnej wojny na ukształtowanie i rozwój międzynarodowego prawa kosmicznego

Author(s): Patryk Topolski / Language(s): Polish Issue: 2/2022

The beginning of the Cold War took place with the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition in 1945, and the conflict itself lasted until the collapse and disintegration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1991. The Cold War arms race was a manifestation of the multifaceted rivalry between East and West. One sphere of conflict was the space race. The apogee of the space race occurred between 1957 and 1985. With the launch of the first artificial satellite “Sputnik 1” in 1957 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics into orbit around the Earth, efforts to conquer space began. The main research objective of this article is to answer the question of how the Cold War influenced the formation and development of international space law. The author will also provide answers to specific research questions, such as: How was the space policy of the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shaped during the Cold War? What legal matter was regulated in acts of international space law during the Cold War period? How did the norms and principles of international space law introduced during the Cold War period affect relations between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics? To verify the main research objective and research questions, the author used the dogmatic-legal method to systematize the international legal norms governing space activity during the Cold War conflict. The main sources used in the article are the international conventions developed on the grounds of the United Nations, data containing summaries of the most important space missions in the period from 1957 to 1985, and the body of doctrine of international space law from the Cold War era.

People Who Could Not Keep Silent. The Founding Fathers of Whistleblowing

Author(s): Magdalena Kun-Buczko / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2022

The dilemma between loyalty to an organization and exposing irregularities within it has been observed since 1777, when whistleblowing activities were first documented, when ten sailors affected by mistreatment and feelings of injustice decided to report these irregularities to the most powerful commander in the Continental Navy, Esek Hopkins. Since then, there have been many examples of whistleblowing in the US. Each whistleblower, acted in the name of the greater good, often risking his or her name, reputation and even his or her family’s safety. The first reports were unique because no one knew the institution of whistleblowers, and their activities were often synonymous with denunciation and lack of loyalty to the employer. Over time, attitudes began to change, regulations began to emerge to protect whistleblowers, and even organizations began to stand up to protect their rights. Instead of condemnation, their attitude began to be met with admiration and approval. Whistleblowers began to be rewarded for their activity. Whistleblowing is beginning to become the norm and standard of a democratic state of law. It is understood that a well-built compliance policy, transparent and clear operating rules play a huge role in the success of an organization. A brief presentation of selected stories of whistleblowers is intended to give an idea of the development of this institution. The research methodology used in this article primarily involves the historical-descriptive method.

DIE DISKUSSION UM DIE GEISTIG-IDEOLOGISCHEN WURZELN DES NATIONALSOZIALISMUS AUS DER PERSPEKTIVE DER DEUTSCHEN EXILINTELLEKTUELLEN. EINE APORIE: ROMANTIK VS. AUFKLÄRUNG

Author(s): Ștefania Surdu / Language(s): German Issue: 25/2021

A work from 1942, from Arnold Zweig`s exile in Palestine raises a question that seems to essentially express the struggles of an entire generation of German intellectuals regarding the intellectual and ideological causes of the emergence of fascism in Germany: „Were there at the basis of our lives (...) enough justice, enough reason? The earth had too much or too little spirit?” Although it may seem paradoxical, this aporia has intrigued several German intellectuals (especially those who were forced during the Third Reich to go into exile, such as Arnold Zweig, Heinrich and Thomas Mann, Lion Feuchtwanger, Georg Lukács, Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno etc.), that have tried to elucidate an almost inexplicable phenomenon that erupted in a time of apparent economic and political stability and „security” and cultural brisance. Taking into account the main noological theories that have been issued, the causes of the unfortunate turn in Germany's history can be reduced to the aporia resulting from the following series of dichotomies: reason instinct, hyperrationality-irrationality, sophisticated technology/destructive civilization - immaculate nature, order-chaos, God-Satan, culture-barbarism, progress-reaction. Not only for reasons of simplification and theoretical coherence, the present work extrapolates this series of oppositions to the conceptual binomial „Enlightenment” – „Romanticism”, but which aims to cover the whole paradigm of the above categories. The thesis of the present paper is that some intellectuals identify the causes of the collapse of Germany in a „surplus” of reason, in a degeneration of the (positive) rationality of the Enlightenment, which is materialized in a sophisticated technology and that eventually turns against humanity itself, while others, on the contrary, see the germs of the spiritual ruin in a „misunderstood Romanticism”, as unleashing of instincts and complete liberation from the chains of reason, taken to the extreme, in irrationality and primitivism. The present study aims to prove that one of the possible sources of this aporia can be identified in the dual character of the philosophical discourse of Nietzsche. Furthermore, intends the present work to highlight the subversive implications of the instrumentalization of this binomial in politically-motivated and propagandistic approaches by the German intellectuals in the second half of the last century.