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The present paper concentrates on subjective factors of immigration (e.g. attitudes and individual intercultural communication readiness) rather than on objective factors (e.g. economic grounds of immigration).
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The paper discussed three communicative strategies that are most frequently used by Japanese students in conversational Lithuanian. These include code switching, repetitions and pausing. It has been noticed that the interviewed switch languages when it is necessary to fill in lexical gaps. As for the pedagogical perspective, Skiba claims that “when code switching is to compensate for a language difficulty it may be viewed as interference and when it is used as a socio-linguistic tool it should not” (Skiba, http:// iteslj.org/Articles/Skiba-CodeSwitching.html.) Repetitions are used in cases of the lack of linguistic competence and the students’ involvement in the conversation. According to Roebuck and Wagner, shadowing, which is one of the repetition forms, helps learners to participate in what has been said and in this way allows them to get involved more actively into the conversation (Roebuck and Wagner, 2004). This enables even novice learners to collaborate in the conversation and learn more at the same time (Roebuck and Wagner, 2004). Pauses help students to think and compensate the time deficit. Thus it is evident that even beginner level students are able to produce and collaborate in conversations with the help of the above-mentioned communicative strategies. As for foreign language learning, it could be concluded that these strategies are helpful and could be taught to be used consciously in the foreign language classroom to achieve more effective and easier learning. In addition, it might be beneficial to conduct further research in order to determine as to how students’ application of communicative strategies changes while improving the acquisition of foreign language skills.
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Nuo 1991 m. Estijoje rusakalbių tema plačiai diskutavo ne tik socialinių mokslų atstovai, bet ir politikai. Kad ir kaip būtų, pagrindiniai politiniai debatai ir mokslinių tyrinėjimų dėmesys yra sutelkti į Estijos vidaus politiką ir mažumų tarpusavio santykius su Estijos valstybe. Valstybės programoje, pavadintoje Integracija į Estijos visuomenę 2000–2007 m., rusakalbių gyventojų skaičius yra laikomas vidaus politikos veiksniu1. Jau dabar aišku, jog rusakalbių bendruomenė gali būti vertinama platesniame tarptautinių santykių kontekste. Rusijos Federacija, rusakalbių tėvynė, kuria ypatingus santykius su išsisklaidžiusiais po kitas šalis savo žmonėmis (diaspora). Rusijos Federacija, ieškodama palankiausio modelio santykiams su tėvynainiais, gyvenančiais užsienyje, parengė pradinę struktūrą bendrauti su diaspora, formuluoja ir įgyvendina diasporai palankius politinius planus.
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Short-term emigration is mainly related to the employment problems in Latvia. Inadequately low salaries, unemployment, and spread of illegal employment cause high poverty risk for many families. Inability to support themselves and to support their family makes women go to foreign countries to do unskilled work and to earn a sufficient salary by Latvian standards. Short-term migration with a view to earn money becomes regular (during summer, 6 months a year, etc.) for most women. Young women (usu. students) go to foreign countries for other purposes as well (e.g. to learn a language or to gain experience) but women who have a family have the only motive, i.e. to earn money.
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The present article focuses on two important issues. First, the paper concentrates on the national structure of the Polish society in the light of the results of the census of 2002. Another issue that will be addressed here is the influence that the census had on the legislation concerning minorities. Implementation of The National and Ethnic Minorities and Regional Language Act has stirred up many controversies. However, it seems that the Act is a compromise between the position of minorities and the majority. It confirmed the position of the “old” minorities and created a system protecting their rights. However, there are groups (e.g. Silesians or Kashubs) who aspired to achieve the minority status but they were not recognized as such. Their demands where based on the outcome of the 2002 national census in which both communities proved to be among the most numerous ones. They tried to use the absence of a precise definition of a national/ethnic minority. Since the Act was put into practice in 2005, they lost their hopes. Nevertheless, the issue of Silesians and Kashubs proved that the phenomenon of ethnic identity is still alive. On the other hand, it was a sign of new times; the Polish country is no longer nationally homogenous. Awareness of this problem is especially important when the Polish society faces such new challenges as mass immigration.
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Pasaulinė kelionių ir turizmo taryba (WTTC) vadina turizmą didžiausia pramonės šaka ir esminiu XXI a. ekonomikos ir įdarbinimo varikliu (Chavez 2000). Tad neatsitiktinai daugybė šalių, taip pat ir Lietuva, laiko turizmą prioritetine veiklos sritimi (Lietuvos turizmo rinkodara 2003). Veiksniai, lemiantys turizmo vystymąsi, yra ne tik gamtos ištekliai, kultūros paminklai, infrastruktūra ar kvalifikuoti turizmo darbuotojai, bet ir turistinis šalies įvaizdis.
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Dalyvauti NVO veikloje suomius skatina įvairios priežastys, ne tik naudos sau siekimas. Anot G. Jakobo, yra išskiriami penki aspektai, dėl kurių piliečiai įsitraukia į savanorišką veiklą. Visų pirma žmones dalyvauti organizacijose skatina tai, kad jie turės galimybę gerai praleisti laisvalaikį ir užsiimti kokia nors naudinga veikla. Antra, savanorystė gali padėti žmogui atrasti tą sritį, kurioje jis norėtų vėliau dirbti arba tobulinti tuos įgūdžius, kurių jam reikės kopiant karjeros laiptais. Trečia paskata susijusi su dalyvavimu NVO yra ta, kad žmonės siekia atrasti save (Pohjola 2000, 49), t. y. siekia atrasti savo vietą visuomenėje. Ketvirtu atveju, žmonės suvokia svarbiausias savo gyvenimo vertybes dalyvaudami NVO veikloje. Penktasis žmonių tipas dalyvauja NVO siekdamas realizuoti save ir įprasminti savo veiklą kitų akivaizdoje. Šio tipo žmonės NVO dalyvauja nežymiai ir nedaug. Nors yra skiriami šie dalyvavimo NVO motyvai, tačiau dažnai jie yra glaudžiai susiję. Suomiai dalyvauja NVO tiek siekdami padėti kitiems, tiek ieškodami savo tapatybės.
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Kinijos viduramžiais šiame darbe laikomas periodas, apimantis 265– 907 m. laikotarpį ir pagal kinų tradicinę chronologiją tapatinamas su Pietų ir Šiaurės (nanbei) Sui ir Tang dinastijomis. Nagrinėjamasis laikmetis pasižymi persipinančiomis vietinėmis ir ateinančiomis tradicijomis, gyvybe ir sparčiu, vitališku gyvenimu. Čia mes sutinkame beveik visas kada nors Kinijoje egzistavusias filosofines ir religines sistemas, kurios gyvuoja tolerantiškai ir visiškai neprieštarauja viena kitai.
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A sense of naturalism and plainness in the Taian architecture is genuine: nothing has been intentionally aged to create the timeworn-looking effect; the details, ex. planking of the nijiriguchi, are naturally weathered by time, thus looking old, thus even more venerable. Hereby a rustic manner of wabi aesthetics gets in exertion. Involving the “chazen-ichimi” concept, it also gives a sense to the major aspect of the Zen Buddhism tradition to simplify our lives, to get rid of the desire for possessions, thus leading the tea practitioner’s contemplation to an insight of what is “mu no basho”. Hence there is no wonder why the Taian has been reworked into a part of the Zen temple. If it has been said that the spiritual content meant more to Rikyu than a simple form, we may oppose to such an approach of the Japanese art historians now, concluding that the grand master respected the form equally, and the simple form gained spiritual content.
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Po Šaltojo karo Japonija skiria karinę ir nekarinę grėsmę šalies saugumui. Be karinės grėsms susiduria su transnacionaline: tarptautiniu organizuotu nusikalstamumu, tarptautiniu terorizmu, tarptautine migracija, transnacionalinėmis epidemijomis ir ekologine grėsme. Akivaizdu, kad Japonija, priešingai nei kitos Azijos valstybės, pripažino transnacionalinės grėsmės įtaką tiek šalies tarptautiniam, tiek vidiniam saugumui. Šalis jau dabar skiria daug pastangų kovoti su grėsme. Labiausiai pabrėžiama tarptautinio terorizmo grėsmė, kurią kelia tiek už šalies ribų egzistuojančios, tiek šalies viduje esančios nusikaltamos, teroristinės grupuotės. Kovai su šia grėsme Japonija turi suformulavusi aiškius tikslus, veiksmų planus, kovos priemones. Ji siekia ne tik užtikrinti vidaus, išorės saugumą, bet ir didinti savo įtaką regione bei pasaulyje.
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Šiame straipsnyje žvelgiama į Japonijos politinės kultūros ir vidaus veiksnių poveikį jos užsienio politikos formavimui. Atsakymo apie neįprastą Japonijos užsienio politikos pastovumą bei aukštą nuosaikumo laipsnį kardinaliai keičiantis tarptautinės sistemos struktūrai bandoma ieškoti įsišaknijusioje kultūroje, tradicijose ir istoriniuose pasakojimuose. Analizuojant Japonijos užsienio politikos elgesio modelį politikos, saugumo ir ekonomikos dimensijoje bei užsienio politikos vykdymą naudojant tyliąją diplomatiją, pateikiamos pagrindinės užsienio bei Japonijos tyrinėtojų siūlomos Japonijos užsienio politikos alternatyvos.
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Global migration trends depend on two important considerations, namely, the wish of inhabitants of the developing countries to improve their standard of living by finding better conditions of life, and the demand for workforce as well as the ageing population and decreasing number of inhabitants in the developed countries. This problem also starts to become topical in Latvia. In the near future it is necessary to carry out surveys on the demographic and economic development in Latvia, especially in relation to the EU, in order to develop an appropriate long-term policy.
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In the last 20 years, after ethnic Germans came back to this country and other refugees started flowing to it, the debates about immigration became especially important among politicians. After World War II, people left their home countries and searched refuge in other countries. Germany was one of those countries where refugees sought asylum. Germany received such people because its industry needed labourers. The question of the integration of immigrants became the priority of the state. We can single out five phases of immigration into Germany: (1) Post- War Immigration in 1945 – 1954, (2) Guest Workers’ Immigration in 1955 – 1973, (3) Family Reunification in 1974 – 1982, (4) Asylum and Refugee Immigration in 1983 – 1993, and (5) Immigration caused by the development of the European Union and Inflows of Ethnic Germans since 1988 until nowadays.
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Stebint šiuolaikines žiniasklaidos vystymosi tendencijas, imama abejoti, ar ji apskritai pajėgi sukurti viešąją erdvę, būti ta visuomenės gyvenimo arena, kurioje susikerta viešieji interesai ir gimsta pilietiniai sprendimai. Žiniasklaidos tyrėjai taip pat negali pasakyti, kiek politinių naujienų turėtų būti kasdien pranešama, kad visuomenei būtų suteikta pakankamai pilietinės kompetencijos, o ir politinių naujienų kiekis dar nieko nesako apie jų kokybę (Norris 2000, 27). Iš kitos pusės, žiniasklaidos vaidmuo formuojant visuomenės politines nuostatas ir nustatant socialinio gyvenimo prioritetus pagrįstas empiriniais tyrimais. Todėl, nors ir įvertinant visą grėsmę, neatsisakoma idėjos, jog būtina siekti, kad žiniasklaida suteiktų visuomenei kiek įmanoma daugiau ir įvairiapusiškesnės praktinės informacijos, kaip vienas ar kitas politinis sprendimas gali asmeniškai paveikti kiekvieno piliečio gyvenimą. Manoma, jog tai savaime skatins norą dalyvauti formuojant šalies ar europinę politiką. Todėl pripažįstama, jog atviros viešosios erdvės modelis – tai bet kurios demokratinės visuomenės siekiamybė.
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Dannenstern House was built in the 1690s for the Dutch merchant Ernst Metsue, “landlord von Dannenstern” who became one of the most prominent and powerful representatives of the local aristocracy, capable of realising the most ambitious plans concerning his new home in Riga. In 1696 the main construction works were almost finished. According to the archives, all the sculptural work was done under the supervision of Zurich stonemason Johann Bodemer, while sculptor and woodcarver Dietrich Walter from Stockholm was invited to execute the sculptural decor. The architectonic composition of the main façade of the Dannenstern House is rather atypical for the Baroque period with its solution on two axes. The building has two symmetrical projections with portals that render the entire construction light and more presentable. The natural stone façade is divided by eight Corinthian colossal order pilasters to maintain the rhythm of the dominant feature and balance of the overall composition. In general the finish of the façade might be described as having delicately detailed elaboration – in both the acanthus ornamentation and the minor details.The characteristic features of the Corinthian capitals of the pilasters deserve particular attention. The technical implementation is on a professionally high level, as well as the artistic solution, refined and picturesque in detail, touched by the breath of classical elegance. Looking for definite samples, we find a completely identical solution of the pilasters at the Poppenhuis designed by Philips Vingboons and the Trippenhuis by his brother Justus. Since the stonemason Dietrich Walter was an emigrant from Stockholm where the influence of the Vingboons’ circle captured the dominant position in the architecture of the given period, such an analogy is to be regarded as no surprise. As the authorship of the Dannenstern House is still disputed, a few suppositions are proposed. Dutch merchants, diplomats and other active expatriate cultural agents would often provide themselves with modern and representative classical architecture by bringing designs from their homeland. In such cases the presence of an architect was not obligatory. However, it is unlikely that von Dannenstern brought a ready design with him when he arrived in Riga in 1673 because the purchase of the building plot would only take place 10 years later. Besides, the main argument against this version is the non-standard configuration of the building, provided by the specific character of the site. From a stylistic and proportional point of view, this building reflects a trend of architecture, considered by architects and the educated aristocracy to be an incarnation of classical beauty by means of mathematically clear and harmonious proportions. The main element for the implementation of this aim was the use of classical order according to the prescriptions of the followers of Palladio and the achievements of Jacob van Campen and his circle.
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The review examines the book "Rīgas dievnami: arhitektūra un māksla" by several architects and art historians (Riga, 2007) that analyses architecture and art related to churches of all confessions found Riga. The reviewer stresses the significant contribution to the Latvian cultural history, although the book is said to contain a number of terminological problems and other errors.
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A significant number of educational institutions was built on the newly created ring of boulevards in Riga after the demolition of the historical fortifications in the 2nd half of the 19th century. This article provides a systematic review and analysis of the buildings of this period based on their construction history, façade description and planning with references to analogies and sources of inspiration from European architectural history. The first buildings were those of the Riga Polytechnic Institute and Realgymnasium. Both featured the round arch style (Rundbogenstil) that was considered appropriate for educational institutions at the time. Buildings erected in the 1860s were derived from the architecture of Hanover and a school project was designed especially for Riga (1859) by the architect Ludwig Debo, the long-standing lecturer at the Hanover Polytechnic School. Although the Riga Polytechnic Institute and Realgymnasium were designed and built simultaneously, the arrangement of their façades and planning show different solutions, used concurrently during the following decades. Riga Polytechnic Institute was designed by G.F.A. Hilbig and initially built with the longitudinal façade facing the boulevard; its façades were of yellow brick combined with red-brown terracotta décor and bands of violet-glazed bricks. The Realgymnasium designed by the City Chief Architect Johann Daniel Felsko was intended as a cubic block with four inner yards and façades with plastered rustication. The planning principle with inner yards devised for educational institutions was used for the Realschule (arch. J. D. Felsko) and Orthodox Priests’ Seminary building (arch. Heinrich Scheel) in the late 1870s. Riga school projects demonstrate that architectonic solutions were often conditioned by several circumstances (available financing, the building plot, the number of classrooms intended, etc.). Buildings designed by Johann Baumann in the 1860s – 1870s, like the Lomonosov Gymnasium and the Alexander Gymnasium differ both with regard to façade solutions and planning configuration. In the 1880s Reinhold Schmaeling was the Chief Architect of Riga. He combined raw brick with Neo-Renaissance architectonic elements and decorative motifs in his school façades. Schmaeling planned the City Elementary School and City Girls’ Gymnasium with classrooms and cabinets facing the boulevard and a long corridor on the yard side. Since the late 1880s, educational institutions were of large dimensions consisting of several blocks (such as the Kaiser Peter I Realschule) that used the building plot to its maximum effect. This construction principle survived also into the early 20th century. Schools in the ring of boulevards were designed and built by local architects. Although each of them had their own professional style, they followed the change of neo-styles and technological innovations brought by the epoch.
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The building at 10 Audēju Street in Riga is an example of how much valuable material can be discovered during the study of a single edifice. Research on this building has been carried out over several periods from 1970 to 1990. However, as findings were not exhibited during reconstruction, the building has not received the exceptional place in the overall picture of Riga’s architectural history it deserves. The building in Audēju Street was built in 1855, combining two adjacent plots and two constructions that stood separately till the 1840s. So they are described as separate entities, marked as those of plot A and plot B. Both plots existed already in the mid-14th century. Construction on plot A has not survived but the semi-basement of the “Hans Smelte’s Small House” mentioned in documents on plot B is one of the best preserved fragments of Riga’s oldest stone buildings. Construction of a stone house on plot A took place in the mid or late 1540s. In 1544 Vyth Dösstede bought an empty building plot, but by 1552 the now deceased Dösstede’s house had already been sold. Fragments of Dösstede’s stone house have survived: the upper edging of the 1st floor façade windows, the ends of a horizontal decorative frieze and the lower part of the left-side niche of the gable consisting of a double frieze of profiled bricks. As Gothic dwelling houses have almost completely been lost in Riga, this is unique, authentic material. The last third of the 17th century began with several fires, the most damaging of which broke out in 1677. This proved fatal to Dösstede’s house and the nearest buildings. During the reconstruction of the building on plot A, the old walls of Dösstede’s house were used to their maximum, changing only the roof orientation with the slope now facing the street. The reconstructed building featured a spacious basement, two floors and a rather high loft for storage. The block facing the street contained premises with a rich interior finish. The façade against Audēju Street was plastered with a reddish-grey plaster, emphasising some protruding details by painting effects such as the diamond-shaped rustication in the corners of the building. The main entrance was emphasised by a limestone portal with polychrome sculpted décor. Windows were framed by low-relief rims. By the late 17th century the façade had already been painted black and white. The interior features painted decorations in almost all the rooms on both floors. A fragment of the wall painting of the stone-carved winding staircase has survived depicting a convolution of acanthus leaves in black, white and grey tones. Rooms with painted plafonds have a restrained wall finish – a dark base with contrasting splashes on the light wall background. This focuses attention on the ceiling compositions painted on the pegged wooden beams. The master had been well versed in the Baroque traditions of plafond painting typical of Northern Europe and Scandinavia in the late 17th century.
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Extended summary of the article (in English)
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