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L ’auteur de ce travail traite des innovations phraseologiques dans le serbocroate, introduites par des eorivains modernes, et constate que ceux-ci pratiquent »des procedes differents: remplacent un lexeme par un autre, transforment la structure morphologique et/ou syntaxique, reduisent ou elargissent des phraseologismes, contaminent des phraseologismes dejä existants.
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Review of: Tatjana Korač, Antica Menac i dr., "Rusko-hrvatski ili srpski frazeološki rječnik", „Školska knjiga“, Zagreb, 1980.; by: Milan Šipka
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The purpose of this paper is to explore the expression “keep an eye on” in COCA data base with the intention to find out what the extended constructions are. The example analysis shows that the metonymy concept eye for watching is present in the sentences where an animate noun is the object. In the examples with inanimate nouns an additional metonymy concept watching is attention is observed. This semi-fixed expression can be extended by a modifier. If it is an adjective (“keep + an + adjective + eye + on”) a blend of metonymy and metaphor (metaphtonymy) may be noted. However, this is not the case in the examples where the modifier is a noun. This is in agreement with the findings of other linguists.
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This article deals with the analysis of a phraseological system that reflects knowledge about the world and about the notions and images in people’s consciousness which contains not only a cognitive and nominative components but also embodies symbolic semantics. Attention is payed to the richness of the phraseological units which express the national character and the distinctive features of Ukrainians. An attempt is made to identify the correlation of language and culture, and of language and mentality which are involved in the cultural and national coloring of phraseological units; to trace the dynamic processes of linguistic culture studies potential of the analyzed units. A n extensive analysis of phraseological units with the component “bee” is carried out. Their ethnocultural characteristics and some reasons for their usage is identified. The symbolic meaning of phraseological units is analyzed, and historical and etymological approaches to the interpretation of the image of the bee in different nations is studied.
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The problem of the motivation of the linguistic sign is more and more in sight of European linguistics, in the direction of even creating a new discipline, motivational linguistics. In the Motivational Phraseological Dictionary, Chisinau, 2023, whose author is the undersigned, it is proposed to conceive the genesis of stable polylexical units by indicating the type of motivation - the extralinguistic one, as well as by the aspect of their origin, they being indigenous and general. Stable expressions of foreign origin are considered general to a large number of languages. The other stable polylexical units are to be regarded as indigenous, having their origin in Romanian, even if they have correspondences in other languages. Their similarity in the third languages can be explained by several reasons. At their emergence, stable polylexical units were originally denominative, motivated language units, where they denoted definite facts in the surrounding world, or connotative, motivated units, where the speaker expressed an attitude towards a certain fact in life. Along the way, as language and society have evolved, some motivated phraseological units have also remained motivated, their components or one of them retaining their meaning. The explanation lies in the fact that only these language units can name certain realities: certain lexical and grammatical values, elimination of ambiguity, etc. The present article will focus on some components of the given phraseologisms expressing some Romanian indigenous symbols and motifs, as they are part of the linguoculture of the Romanian people.
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A la gallega, a la canaria, a la panadera, a la putanesca, à la provençale, à la dijonnaise, à la jardinière, à la paysanne, are just some examples that show the great productivity of a la + nombre structure in Spanish, à la + nom in French. However, most of these frequent combinations are not included in bilingual lexicographic works, since, in general, the introduction of phraseological data is insufficient or incorrect. Furthermore, we consider that these sequences, due to the manifestation of certain features, such as semi-lexicality, lower semantic idiomaticity, the presence of fixed and variable elements, and a functional meaning of an adverb, can be analyzed from a constructivist approach, that is, identified with lexical matrixes. Likewise, this approach would allow us to address a wide spectrum of combinations, from conventionalized locutions to those combinations of free and ephemeral creation in a discursive situation, present in the linguistic corpora consulted.
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The use of phraseology by the Serbian writer and columnist Svetislav Basara is presented in this paper through analysis of examples of phraseological modifications in Basara’s columns from two different sources, from the newspaper Danas and the newspaper Kurir. The analysis of phraseological modifications reveals the author’s specific approach to language and the linguistic picture of the world and therefore can be used as onе of the possible approaches to studying his linguistic personality. The goal of the research was to prove that the analysis of phraseological modifications can be one of the approaches in the study of the author’s linguistic personality and to show that the theory of linguistic personality can be applied not only in the study of literary texts but also in journalistic discourse. Phraseological modifications were analyzed using a lexical-semantic and pragmatic approach, and classified based on the type of transformation of phraseological expressions. The analysis of modified phraseologisms extracted from Basara’s columns showed that the lexical plan of phraseologism is the most susceptible to changes, and is realized as contamination, substitution, interpolation and reduction. Although less often, changes may also involve the plan of grammatical structure. The semantic level of the phraseology is also subject to changes, mainly as an intensification or concretization of the basic meaning of the phraseologism. The pragmatic approach of the analysis reveals the motivational level of the linguistic personality of the author and the pragmatic goals of using phraseological modifications in the columns. The research results showed that the author uses the same types of phraseological modifications with the same pragmatic goals in the columns from both sources, which leads to the conclusion that there were no changes at the motivational level of his linguistic personality
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Phraseology is an integral part of every culture and a valuable element of linguistic heritage. It includes complex vocabulary units that serve as verbal cultural signs. Phrasemes are often very old and reflect myths, customs, traditions, legends, symbols, and ideologies of a culture (Bock and Manerowa 2019, 43; Bralić 2011, 171). To describe culture in phraseology, we must distinguish between the cultural basis and cultural specifics. The cultural basis refers to culture in a broad sense, i. e. most phrasemes are culture-based and cannot be understood without specific cultural knowledge. Cultural specifics require a cross-linguistic perspective, i. e. a phraseme can only be considered culture-based if it is contrasted with other languages (Piirainen 2007, 209). Furthermore, phrasemes are frequently used in various types of discourses. Political discourse refers to the intertextual construction in official communications from politicians, while media discourse is intertextually constructed in articles by journalists. Both politicians and journalists express their positions through direct (overt) and indirect (mitigated) linguistic means, which can be either objective or subjective (Škevin Rajko and Grgić Maroević 2018, 105). Phrasemes are fixed combinations of words, i. e. they consist of at least two words with their own meanings, and they are known to native speakers in exactly this combination (Burger 2010, 11; Burger 2002, 392; Bock and Manerowa, 2019, 45; Fleischer 1982, 34; Casadei 1996, 13). Phrasemes have following characteristics: polylexicality, stability, and idiomaticity, and they are divided into phrasemes in the broader or narrower sense according to the characteristics they exhibit. Phrasemes in the broader sense are characterized by their polylexicality and stability. This means that they consist of more than one word and that this combination of words is often used in exactly this form (such as collocations) (Burger 2010, 14; Burger et al. 2007, 2). Phrasemes in the narrower sense are also characterized by their idiomaticity, i. e. the components form a unity that cannot be fully explained by the syntactic and semantic rules of connection (Burger 2010, 14). Depending on the degree of idiomaticity, phrasemes are described as fully or partially idiomatic. Partially idiomatic phrasemes retain a component of their free meaning – for example, the phraseme einen Streit vom Zaun brechen is idiomatic with respect to the component vom Zaun brechen, while the component einen Streit has its lexical meaning. On the other hand, fully idiomatic phrasemes do not retain any component of their free meaning – Öl ins Feuer gießen has the phraseological meaning of making something worse (Burger 2002, 392; Burger 2007, 90; Burger 2010, 14, 30; Cacciari and Tabossi 1988, 668). Furthermore, phrasemes can be classified according to different criteria. On the one hand, they are divided according to the parts of speech into substantive, adjectival, verbal, etc. phrasemes (Skog-Södersved 2007, 269). On the other hand, according to the sign function in communication, they are divided into referential, structural and communicative phrasemes. Referential phrasemes refer to aspects of reality, such as objects, events or facts (e. g. schwarzes Brett, jmdn. übers Ohr hauen, Morgenstund hat Gold im Mund). Structural phrasemes serve to establish grammatical relationships between words (e. g. in Bezug auf, sowohl – als auch). Communicative phrasemes or routine formulas have specific functions in the creation, definition, execution and termination of communicative actions (e. g. Guten Morgen, ich meine) (Burger 2010, 36). The functions of phrasemes are diverse. Some phrasemes are particularly conspicuous components of texts because, like metaphors, they are encoded in a double way. This means that they are mentally represented both verbally and non-verbally. Imagery is an important aspect of phrasemes and contributes to their connotative and stylistic effect, which also makes them easy to remember (Elspaß 2007, 288). It has been found that most phrasemes are not functionally or pragmatically fixed in terms of their use in practice, but rather represent pragmatically neutral constructions (Burger, Buhofer and Sialm, 41 in SkogSödersved 2007, 270). According to Koller (2007, 69), phrasemes have a “potential function” because the actual function is decided by the context (Skog-Södersved 2007, 271). Furthermore, Palm (1997) and Burger (2003) categorize phrasemes according to different style levels: over-neutral (Roma aeterna), neutral (zu Boden sinken), under-neutral (Rotz und Wasser heulen) and vulgar (zum Kotzen (sein)) (Sandig 160). According to Fleischer (1987, 52), it is important to take into account the interplay between the functions of word formation constructions and phrasemes in order to view the complex issue from a more differentiated perspective (Skog-Södersved 2007, 270). The most common functions of the phrasemes researched in the literature are evaluation (Burger 2003, Burger 2007, Skog-Södersved 2007, Sandig 2007), emotion and expressivity (Skog-Södersved 2007, Rothkegel in Sandig 2007, Duhme in SkogSödersved 2007), argumentation (Skog-Södersved 2007, Koller 2007, Lüger 2001), manipulation (Burger 1987, Skog-Södersved 2007), humour (Norrick 2007), intensification, and euphemism (Fleischer, Michel and Starke in Sandig 2007, 160). Phrasemes have the ability to express the speaker's attitude, meaning they can be positive, negative or ambivalent (Burger 2003, Sandig 2007, 160). Burger (2003, 16-18) argues that serious journalists use phrasemes consciously and that these are not only important for the overall structure of the text, but that they also enable journalists to express their personal opinions and evaluations in some way (Skog-Södersved 2007, 271). Phrasemes can be used for expressive purposes to evoke or express emotions in both the recipient and the text producer (Skog-Södersved 2007, 272). Burger (1987) examines clarity and argumentation saving functions in mass media (Skog-Södersved 2007, 271). Lüger (2001, 70-71) states that phrasemes can primarily act to qualify linguistic actions, to type or evaluate facts, and to establish or justify higher-level actions. Burger (1987, 22) emphasizes that it would be wrong to describe phrasemes in the mass media as manipulative, since they have a rhetorical function in the press and are not necessarily manipulative, as their use varies in newspaper articles and other types of text (Skog-Södersved 2007, 271-272). Because of their familiarity and stability, phrasemes can be ideal for generating humour in various forms of discourse such as conversations, jokes, and comics (Norrick 2007, 302). Phrasemes often express intensification, vividness, expressivity and euphemism (Fleischer, Michel and Starke 15-17 in Sandig 2007, 160). Normally, texts in print media have the primary function of conveying information and providing entertainment, so phrasemes also contribute to these functions (Skog-Södersved 2007, 270). Position within a text can influence how significant or effective phrasemes are. According to the positioning of the phrasemes, they can have different functions, i. e. (1) phrasemes as holders at the beginning of a text have the function of emotionalizing and arousing curiosity (e.g. a headline), (2) phrasemes as brackets at the beginning and at the end of the text complement the text by making it thematic or aesthetic or round it off persuasively and (3) phrasemes as a hinge, whereby two different parts of a text are mirrored and tied together (Rothkegel 240-242 in Sandig 2007, 168). This article analyses the use of phrasemes in German and Italian during the war in Ukraine. The goal is to identify the similarities and differences in the use of phrasemes in both languages. For this purpose, phrasemes were extracted from the newspapers Der Spiegel and La Repubblica. The corpus covers the time frame of the first two weeks after Russia's attack on Ukraine (from February 24, 2022 to March 10, 2022). It is believed that phrasemes can have an appeal to readers due to their figurative nature. For this reason, no nonidiomatic phrasemes were taken into account, only fully and partially idiomatic ones. The research examines what functions phrasemes fulfil and who uses them. In addition, the number and type of phrasemes in the articles about the conflict in Ukraine was determined and the differences and similarities between the two languages were compared. Since phrasemes can fulfil different functions, the functions of phrasemes are selected here according to the type of discourse. The media discourse and the topic “War in Ukraine” limit the use of phrasemes, i. e. the phrasemes in media discourse attract attention and arouse curiosity, but they are not used humorously in this type of discourse. Accordingly, this article considers the functions of evaluation, emotion, argumentation, intensification, euphemism, and irony. In the corpora it was found that most German phrasemes are fully idiomatic (89%) (e.g. ans Licht kommen, in jmds. Hände fallen, Nummer eins, Öl ins Feuer gießen), while the Italian ones are more divided - 58% fully idiomatic (e.g. cadare in mano, a caldo, mettere in ginocchio) and 42% partially idiomatic (allargarsi a macchia d'olio, farsi beffe di qualcuno, cessare il fuoco). Some phrasemes were repeated several times in the corpora - in the German corpora these are auf dem Spiel stehen, auf dem Tisch liegen, auf den Weg bringen, auf eigene Faust, auf ein neues Glas setzen, auf Eis liegen, aufs Spiel setzen, der Ball liegt bei jmdm., die Stirn bieten, einen kühlen Kopf bewahren, Farbe bekennen, grünes Licht geben, im Stich lassen, in die Hände spielen, in jmds. Hände fallen, ins Mark treffen, ins Spiel kommen, ins Visier nehmen, Nummer eins and Wenn und Aber, and in Italian cadere nelle mani di qualcuno and fare presa. In both corpora, the phrasemes were frequently used in direct and indirect quotations, with journalists using phrasemes more frequently in German than in Italian. In the German corpora, the phrasemes were used in direct and indirect quotations in 55% of the articles, with the phraseme being used by a journalist in 45% of the articles. In contrast, in Italian corpora, 62% of phrasemes were used by journalists and 38% in direct and indirect quotations. It can be concluded that in the German corpus, the phrasemes were used more often by journalists than by politicians, while in the Italian corpus the usage is uniform. In both corpora, most phrasemes were used in the middle of the article, 77% in German and 40% in Italian. At the beginning and end of the article, 12% of the phrasemes were used in German (8% at the beginning and 4% at the end) and 52% in Italian (35% at the beginning and 17% at the end). In German, 11% of the phrasemes were in a title or subtitle, whereas in Italian this was true of 8% of phrasemes. The functions are similarly evenly distributed in both languages: the most common function of phrasemes is evaluation (60% of German and 39% of Italian phrasemes), followed by intensification (15% of German and 23% of Italian phrasemes), euphemism (14% of German and 20% of Italian phrasemes), argumentation (6% of German and 6% of Italian phrasemes) and emotion (5% of German and 12% of Italian phrasemes). There are no phrasemes with the function of irony. The phrasemes with the function of evaluation include e.g. in German Nummer eins, Klartext sprechen, die Stirn bieten, and auf dem richtigen Weg, and in Italian forzare la mano, mettere in gioco, pagare a caro prezzo, and doccia scozzese. The phrasemes with the function of intensification include. in German Wenn und Aber, Spitze des Eisbergs, das Blaue vom Himmel versprechen, and um jeden Preis, and in Italian partire in picchiata, arrivare alle stelle, allargarsi a macchia d'olio, and in un lampo. The phrasemes with the function of euphemism in German include auf Eis legen, außer Gefecht setzen, fest in jmds. Hand sein, and jmdn. zu Fall bringen, and in Italian cadere in mano, mettere in ginocchio, piovere sul bagnato, and cessare il fuoco. The phrasemes with the function of argumentation in German are, for example, jemandem/ einer Sache den Hahn zudrehen, grünes Licht geben, and der Teufel steckt im Detail, and in Italian molta acqua è passata sotto i ponti, a faccia a faccia, and cantare vittoria. Finally, the phrasemes with the function of emotion in German include das Herz zerrissen, and einen kühlen Kopf bewahren, and in Italian girare le spalle, and mettersi nei panni di qualcuno. In summary, the situation in Europe, especially the war and everything involved in it, is often assessed through the use of phrasemes. These opinions are often reinforced, intensified, and depicted graphically. Phrasemes are used to express emotions and mitigate the negative effects of war. Therefore, phrasemes also fulfill the function of euphemisms. Political statements made by politicians or political journalists often resonate loudly because of their use and intended purpose, which is to reach the ears, hearts, and souls of their listeners or readers. Language plays an enormous role in this context for politicians and political journalists, as it represents the most important tool for successfully or less successfully convincing audiences that what they say and represent is true, honest, good or for the best. Furthermore, phrasemes consciously or unconsciously influence public opinion and shape it depending on the expected reception and perception of the reader or listener.
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This study addresses the use of Persian loanwords in today's Albanian language, focusing on registers with a low level of formality. Persian (Farsi) had an extensive presence in the culture of the Ottoman Empire, which for almost five centuries ruled the Balkan region, where Albanians lived as well. Thus, intercultural relations were established between Albanians and Persians, but with the mediation of the Ottoman Empire. In this way, a large number of Persian words penetrated the Albanian language, many of which, even after many attempts to replace them with Albanian words, have wide use in various registers of this language. Our study addresses the shift of Persian words from high to low-level of registers of formality. This study is conducted using two corpora. The first corpus consists of the lyrics of folk songs, as the genre of the lower level of formality. The second corpus consists of interviews with 100 people interviewed within the project "Oral History of Kosovo". The analysis of the use of this part of the Albanian lexicon was carried out on the basis of the theory of corpus linguistics, the theory of languages in contact and the sociolinguistic approach to language registers. The study relies on multi-functionality and linguistic pluralism, on the basis of which the functionalization of Persian words has been researched and used in different styles.
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The subject of the paper is a refl ection on the use of the conceptual and terminological apparatus of word formation when describing phraseological issues. I am primarily interested in the fi ndings made so far in the fi eld of Polish linguistics. In their light, I look at a fragment of the phraseological space including comparative structures that can be assigned to the semantic category of degree. Therefore, these are units in which the word ‘very’ or ‘more than very’ is a necessary element in their semantic explication.
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The sources of the Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary and Vernacular Language, vol. 1–21 (the SASA Dictionary or Dictionary of the Serbian Academy) are analyzed applying the method of statistical analysis. Its main aim was to provide a clear idea of the frequency of relevant and particularly relevant sources in the text of the dictionary as a whole (while also pointing to the problems and hindrances that occur in the digital search of sources). This type of analysis was conducted using the volumes 2, 10 and 17 (released in 1962, 1978, and 2006, respectively). The analysis and total ratio of frequency in the volumes under examination demonstrates that the sources can be divided into: a. The basic circle (top 10 dictionary sources); b. Broader circle (top 100 sources); c. The broadest circle (top 500 sources). The analysis also yielded the fact that basic sources comprise more important dictionaries as well as collections of vernacular words, so that the circle of sources spreads further including some other more relevant collections of words, prominent authors, signifi cant periodicals, and so on. The analysis as projection basically identifi ed the sources upon which the SASA Dictionary is actually based. Beyond this varied and broad circle lie sources that more rarely, or hardly ever occur, as a testimony to the existence or usage of certain lexical items in the corpus material of the Dictionary of the Serbian Academy. The said indicators point the way to the further process of digitization of the SASA Dictionary and its corpus material.
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Speech situations always include elements of both verbal and non-verbal communication, and the essential meaning in it is only possible to reach in a holistic approach, because every speech situation implies a social, cultural and individual context containing collective experience, but all speech situations do not have to follow strictly established rules of verbal and non-verbal communication. However, in certain speech situations, due to functional repetitiveness, strictly established language rules with accompanying non-verbal elements of the speech situation naturally open up the possibility of the so-called phraseologising, which turns a free connection of words into a solid lexical connection. Such is the case with one group of idioms that originate from rituals practiced in different epochs of the historical development of society. Namely, we call such idioms ritualbased idioms because they probably represent the most advanced part of a certain ritual that has been verbalized in the modern language and in most cases has lost its connection with the denotative meaning of its components. The connection with the denotative meaning can be reconstructed through diachronic studies which, as expected, show that the background motivational mechanisms in these idioms are mainly found in the potential of their denotative meanings.
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The aim of this paper is to analyze dialectal, authentic euphemistic phraseologisms from the speech of Rožaje within the semantic field of death, marked by exceptional expressiveness and vividness. The phraseologisms analyzed in the paper were collected through dialectal research of the Rožaje speech and represent a specificity of this speech area, rarely recorded in neighboring dialects. Through this study, we aim to present the taboo nature of the topic of death and the conceptualization of the terms ”death” and ”dying” in language, which are undesirable for utterance in conversational style, leading to the creation of euphemistic phraseologisms in dialectal phraseology. This taboo, a form of social control, is imposed by religion, culture, and society, and individuals are taught this from birth through upbringing and education. The taboo most often applies to death, old age, illness, and intimate relations, but in this paper, we will focus on euphemistic phraseologisms from the tabooed thematic field of death. Death, as part of every civilization, has been euphemized through various mechanisms since the earliest beginnings of collective and individual cultural formation. This will be presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Additionally, we will identify the most productive mechanism in the creation of euphemistic phraseologisms related to the terms ”death” and ”dying.”
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The subject of this paper are idiomatic expressions that have the particle kao (as) in their composition and that we understand as the so-called similes since they refer to comparisons by similarity. We observe both the particle kao as well as the elements of comparandum and tertium comparationis as concepts based on different metaphors according to their grammatical affiliation. By combining at least two conceptual mechanisms, similes appear as a complex but common way of expressing the value system in the Bosnian language. Following the cognitive-grammatical understanding of the grammatical profiles of words that fill the position of relata in similes, the research indicates that metaphors in this type of idiom groups belong to the category of GENERIC IS SPECIFIC, which is explained by the structural patterns of similes that show that the elements of more abstract grammatical profiles are represented by the topology of a (more) concrete type of the word. Conceptual mapping in similes shows that it is still a complex cognitive mechanism realized by relationships at different levels of the grammatical-lexical profile of the components in similes. The corpus was excerpted from several works by Dževad Karahasan and since one part of the works consulted was published after various phraseological dictionaries of the Bosnian language were presented to the public, or because these works were not taken into account at all in the formation of their material, a part of the similes found will remain recorded as material that is a candidate to phraseological recording in the future.
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Review of: Atlasi dialektologjik i gjuhës Shqipe, Vëllimi I 2007, 464 faqe; VËLLIMI II 2008, 601 faqe. Botuar nga Universita degli Studi di Napoli L'Orientale, Dipartimento di Studi dell 'Europa Orientale.
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The aim of this paper is to argue that colloquial words in the Arabic language did not originate in isolation, but that they are, in most cases, a mild modification of Standard Arabic, from which they derive and which serves as the broader core for all Arabic dialects. This paper consists of several sections. The first section deals with diglossia as a characteristic of the Arabic language today, followed by an examination of the characteristics of dialects, with a special emphasis on their origin, geographical division, and mutual differences. The second section is dedicated to phonetic and morphological changes that occur when words from Standard Arabic are used in colloquial speech, while the third addresses words borrowed from foreign languages that have become integrated into everyday Arabic. The main part of the paper is in the fourth section, where practical examples are used to demonstrate and confirm that Arabic dialects actually originate from the standard supra-dialectal Arabic language, and that various factors have led to the apparent divergence of colloquial words from those in Standard Arabic. At the end of the paper, the author offers several suggestions aimed at easing the barrier between colloquial and Standard Arabic, with the long-term goal of completely removing it.
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In German, as well as in Swedish, there are a lot of phrasemes or idioms which all date back to Martin Luther’s Bible translation. Often, these idioms have a similar meaning and a similar or even an identical structure. Normally, they are listed in bilingual dictionaries, but without the small and important differences being pointed out. In this article, on the basis of many examples from the Internet, I conduct a contrastive analysis of 9 common Bible idioms. Thereby I analyze if there are semantic or stylistic differences, if the idioms really are used to the same degree and what the syntactic valences look like. Simultaneously, the descriptions of the idioms in dictionaries are discussed.
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When people are supposed to talk to an interlocutor, they have to choose a linguistic form of address in order to initiate and maintain some type of relation. In my paper I try to show the differences between the German and the Romanian referential address of the interlocutor, which can be done with nominal (proper name, title, kinship terms, etc.), or pronominal (tu, vos etc.) expressions. The nominal and pronominal forms are the most common mechanisms used to address a Catholic, orthodox or a Lutheran nun or monk and the object of study of my investigation. In Germany there are Catholic and Lutheran monasteries, while in Romania there are Catholic, Lutheran and orthodox monasteries. In my research I tried to identify the nominal and pronominal expressions in German and Romanian, which are suggested by the Catholic, Orthodox and Lutheran church. The next phase involved interviews with test persons, who did not know whom they were expected to address and how, but were able to address nuns and monks. Even theology graduates did not know what expressions to choose, but they knew where to find the information. The final phase involved the comparison of the expressions used by test persons in everyday life.
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The article shows some fields of investigation that Romanian German Studies have turned to since 2000. In the synchronous studies on the phraseolexicon of the language pair German and Romanian, phraseological types were compared and equivalence relations were examined from a translation-relevant perspective. Few works are dedicated to the Romanian bilingual lexicographical codification practice, so that suggestions for the redesign of conventional or for the conception of new phraseological dictionaries are not lacking. An outlook on future research approaches within the phraseological contrastive should encourage a more detailed study of the formulaic in order to clarify intercultural peculiarities and frequent usage patterns.
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The need to identify and study phraseological units was only recognised relatively recently. They are characterised by an asymmetry between the expression aspect and the content aspect: being combinations of words in the formal sense, phraseological units are semantic wholes. In effect, there is a complex network of interdependencies between the grammatical, semantic, and functional properties of their elements, as well as of the entire units, which renders them theoretically interesting and distinct from lexemes. They are important in communication but can be difficult to speakers: in order to use them well, one has to know their internal syntactic arrangement, the degree of their discontinuity in utterances, their variability, contextual adaptability and influence on context, as well as their functions in actual use.
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