!["Wojenna" cenzura](/api/image/getissuecoverimage?id=picture_2004_16609.jpg)
We kindly inform you that, as long as the subject affiliation of our 300.000+ articles is in progress, you might get unsufficient or no results on your third level or second level search. In this case, please broaden your search criteria.
Thanks to arrangements made by Jerzy Zysnarski and Edward Rymar, we know that it was Wierzbięta from Smogulec, a knight from Wielkopolska, belonging to the noble clan of Grzymała that had the rights to a small town of Danków in the New March. A detailed analysis of the available source material allowed for pointing out that he received Danków from Sigismund of Luxembourg probably on 16 November 1386 as a salary for the merits given to Sigismund after king Ludwik Węgierski’s death. Jan Zgorzelecki gave the same properties to Otto von Kittlitz, a knight from Łużyce, in 1391. When leaving the New March to the Teutonic Knights, Kittlitz remembered about his rights to Danków while the Order’s authorities used Wierzbięta’s rights against him who was financially connected with the Teutonic Knights much earlier. It led to a long-lasting argument in which initially it was Wierzbięta’s wife and relatives that took part in before October 1403 and his death. The very argument quickly became an argument between Otto von Kittlitz and the Teutonic Knights. It was as late as in 1452 that Fryderyk, a Saxon elector finally ascribed Danków properties to the Teutonic Knights. In subsequent stages of the trial, a big role was given to the representatives of the states (knighthood and towns) of the New March having a much stronger position than the states in the Prussian state of the Order.
More...
By the end of the 12th century Iceland was a political arena of significant changes. The prevailing system of power, based on the General Assembly (Althing) and local leaders authority (goðar) was coming to an end. The balance of power on the island was then to be based on the coexistence of greater domains (héraðsríkja) which were formed by most influential sagas at the cost of local leaders. By the end of the first half of the 13th century, in the Age of the Sturlungs, Iceland was unofficially divided into six local areas of influence ruled by eminent sagas: Haukdælir in Árnesþing, Oddaverjar in Rangárþing, Ásbirningar in Skagafjörður, Vatnsfirðingar in Ísafjörður, in Sturlungar, in Hvammur, in Dalir, and Svínfellingar in Austfirðir. The process of consolidation of power on the island was characteristic of conflicts between particular sagas. Their course is reflected in the so called contemporary sagas written down under the directive of main and most influential participants of the struggle for power (e.g. the Sturlung Saga). The author of the article reflects on the way in which the rivalry, change of alliances, armed confrontations, reached agreements and armistice all came to influence the political balance in Eastern Iceland. The basis for the research into these mechanisms is the analysis of one of the contemporary sagas, that is the Saga of Men from Svinafell (Svínfellinga saga) as compared with other, predominantly old annual volumes created at that time on the island.
More...
The following text presents supplementations to prosegraphy and family relationships of the closest relatives of Mikołaj Trąba and Wojciech Jastrzębiec, two close co-workers of king Władysław Jagiełło, and archbishops in Gniezno taking an office one after another. In the case of one of the brothers, the latter, namely Jastrzębiec, a chamberlain from Łęczyca, it was indicated that he was still alive on 25 November 1410. Also, a closer chronology of leaving priesthood by one of his nephews, Marcin from Borysławice and Rytwiany, who having resigned from a priesthood career, took part in the great battle with the Teutonic Knights (1409—1411), and was appointed a knight after the battle in Grunwald, was presented. An interesting context of the marriage of a niece of the hierarch in question, Anna (a daughter of chamberlain Mikołaj) with Jan from Licheń, a nephew of Andrzej Łaskarzyc from Gosławice, a bishop in Poznań, was more widely discussed. It was also proved that the marriage of chamberlain Mikołaj with Małgorzata from Borysławice did not only led to substantially increased property basis of the Jastrzębiec family by the Borysławice key to Łęczyca Land and two villages in the Kalisz county in Wielkopolska, but also relating a new family from Łubnice and Beszowa by marriage to an outstanding line of the Ogon family from which originated among others the Kościelecki, Umieński, Lubiński-Chodecki and Działyński families in Szeroka Wielkopolska, The so far unknown source also allowed for paying attention to a close relationship between Mikołaj Trąba and a clerk family deriving from Dobrzyn and Kujawy Brzeskie (the Tłuchowski-Baruchowski family belonging to the noble clan of Cholewa). It allowed for making an assumption that although Trąba was an illegitimate son, his mother came without a doubt from a noble family (perhaps even a clerk one) that was significant on a regional scale. Likewise, his biological father, a prelate in the chapter in Sandomierz.
More...
The text combines the elements of a review and an arguing article. Presenting the circumstances of publishing the very book, the author discusses its contents, and evaluates it. The evaluation, though, is not positive. The author of the article pays attention to numerous factographic mistakes, gaps in the literature used or doubtful concluding. Apart from that, the text aims at showing the problems related to the course of Fryderyk Jagiellończyk’s career that Natalia Nowakowska either did not cover or just mentioned them. Among these one should enumerate the necessity to a re-discussion of the relationships between Fryderyk and his most important tutor Filip Kallimach, the circumstances of appointing a prince a bishop of Kraków by a pope, and Filip’s attempts of succession to Warmia bishopric after Łukasz Watzenrode (especially in the light of maintained acts of bishops and Warmia chapter, relationships between brothers, particularly with Zygmunt Stary), Fryderyk’s political position in the Crown a day before Jan Olbracht’s death or the circumstances of the cardinal’s participation in Aleksander Jagiellończyk’s argument with the chapter in Kraków in 1502. The article pays attention to the necessity to separately treat not only personal politics led by Fryderyk in the chapters in Kraków and Gniezno in the future, but also his relationship with older canons, mainly from the circle of archbishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki. It aims at, above all, recognizing how their cooperation worked, how Fryderyk gained them or how they gained his confidence.
More...
The character of the article is Heinko from Głubczyce, the first starost of Opava, a close co-worker of prince Mikołaj of Opava, publically active between 1331 and 1354, gone before 1357. This is a figure well-known by historians, but also controversial when it comes to his social origin. The researchers treat him as either a knight settled down in a town or a townsman being ahead of a knight in terms of his position. The author, arguing with Damian Halmer, deriving Heinko from the environment of the middle class in Głubczyce, shows his knightly status. He pays attention to the fact that it is only a Lubschicz predicate that speaks in favour of Heinko’s middle class origin. There is no document defining Heinko as a townsman, however, a diploma from 1352 places his name among the knights of Opava Land. What is crucial here is a knightly origin of Ramfoldus de Lubschicz identified by the author with Heinko’s son, and Heinko’s knightly family connections. The author rejects Heinko’s connections with the Stosz family, forced by the Czech historians, but associates him with equally influential families von Füllstein and von Reichenbach, though only on the distaff side. Heinko’s family origin remains still a riddle. Lords von Lubschicz, at the time of Heinko of a knightly origin, could come from hereditary mayors of Głubczyce at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries.
More...
Horse-fights (hestaat, hestavíg) were a peculiar phenomenon in the medieval society. The sport, depicted in the Icelandic sagas and later sources, seems to have disappeared in times closer to modern ones. Some researchers opt for ascribing this practice to religious rites; however, this seems dubious due to insufficient data. Horse-fight organization ((hestaþing) comprised an essential part of Icelander’s life in the Middle Ages, for it gave them an opportunity to socialize as well as trade horses and match them. Decisions were taken as to the way horses were supposed to fight (whether in a single combat, or contest etc.); moreover, arbiters were summoned to decide on the score. A horse was led to a horse-fighting place (a fighting circle formed by people or a circle of stones) by a second. Horses fought by biting and kicking their opponent. Perhaps a mare in season was brought to stimulate stallions and make them compete, though there is no evidence as to this matter. A common motif of horse-fight in sagas was due to their end as well as numerous arguments, duels that led to conflicts among horse owners. Also, horse-fights used to be occasions for gathering of rivals representing different regions of the country, whereas their horses would fight with each other. This paved the way for building and shaping of people’s identification with particular parts of the island.
More...
The analysis of source materials, concerning an attack on Johannes Warschow, a merchant from Toruń at the beginning of the 15th century by the inhabitants of Sieradz Land and later events connected with it, allows for reconstructing the actions taken in order to solve misunderstandings. Usually, the case was given to court in the place of residence of the accused. A commander was an arbitrator on the part of the Teutonic Knights, however, when the defendant was the subject of the Crown or Mazowsze, it was a starost. In special cases, there was a possibility to hand the case over to a different clerk, often taking an office in the borderland areas. In unique cases, it was the king who arbitrated the case, and, surely, the prince of Mazowsze and a grand Teutonic master respectively. It does not seem, though, that such courts were often used. One should also notice that two antagonized parties were required to come to court in front of those adjudicating in trans-borderline cases who testified in the course of the trial.
More...
One of the motives to be found in Kazimierz Jagiellończyk’s political ideology was calling for peace, harmony and unity, addressed to both his subjects and the world. It derived from king’s belief in kindness peace and harmony bring. He claimed that state prosperity depends on them. The king’s duty, however, as a just (rex iustus) and peaceful (rex pacificus) king was to provide peace and harmony. The subjects should live in a brotherly harmony. It referred to both the relationships between Poles and Lithuanians as well as Prussians, and internal ones. It was connected to among others the concept of the body of the Polish Crown (corpus regni Poloniae). All subjects were the members of the same body that should constitute unity. Calling for peace, harmony and unity also derived from the fact that Kazimierz Jagiellończyk perceived them against a wider and divine background. He understood king’s duties as the manifestation of God’s actions on the earth. As it was Christ’s coming that provided peace to the earth, maintaining this peace was king’s duty.
More...
This article is dedicated to mention of Galician prince Lev in "Anonymi Leobiensis Chronicon". The author of this chronicle is unknown, but his testimonies are entirely credible, because his work was written in cooperation with another famous medieval author — Iohannis abbatis Victoriensis. Further scientific debate, involving new sources, will shed more light on this important issue and a detailed analysis will give us a chance to identify the first chronicler, who marked the name of the Galician prince Lev Danilovich among active participants of the great battle between the Czech king and the founder of the Habsburg dynasty.
More...
The aim of the article is to examine the credibility of one of the documents whose authorship is ascribed to Bolesław Wstydliwy. Testing of the very document has become a reason to draw a theory on the conflict in the circles of a political elite of Małopolska in the 1250s. The staffing of offices in the letter of witnesses seemed inappropriate in almost all cases. Despite the fact that a diploma started to play a significant role at one time, its credibility was not commented on by the researchers yet testing was considered real without going into details. Only some historians treated the document as suspicious. The provenance of the conflict in question in theories of subsequent historians was extremely different: some researchers saw a reflection of rivalry between a castellan and a voivode of Kraków on the priority in hierarchy in a strange form of testing, for some others an extraordinary list of witnesses was to prove pluralism of Małopolska dwellers towards the so-called war on the legacy left after the Babenbergs. A detailed examination of disposition components and getting to know people present both in testing and the remaining part of the diploma closer, shed a totally different light on document credibility, and, hence, the image of internal politics of Małopolska in the mid 13th century.
More...
The status of skaldic poetry as a reliable source, and its potential value for historical studies of Scandinavia in the 10th and 11th century, has long been an area of research. Owing to the late state of textual preservation and the poems’ distinctive features, they are rightly referred to with due caution. However, it does not mean that such sources are irrevocably lost for historians. As an example may serve the research done on the presence of the Scandinavians in England at the turn of the 10th and 11th century. Likewise, poetry was written at the court of King Magnus the Good (ca. 1035–1047) of Norway and Denmark. This matter refers to the way that skaldic poets addressed the king in poems composed in his honor. A thorough analysis of three poems (Magnúsflokkr Þjóðólfa Arnórssona, Hrynhenda Magnúsdrápa, and Magnúsdrápa Arnóra Þórðarsona) points to the skaldic poets carefulness in their way of addressing the King so as to accurately communicate his attempts to legitimize his position in Denmark, especially in the face of the conflict with Swen Ulfsson – a claimant to the throne. Poetry in honor of Magnus the Good points to what is found in other sources. Magnus’s power over Denmark was based on his memory of his father, Olaf the Saint, and a way to extend his advantage over his adversaries who made claims to the throne was seen in his taking control of the significant region, namely Scania.
More...
Millers as a social group are to be found in the sources at the turn of the Middle Ages and the modern era, however, the studies on this part of the society have not been thoroughly conducted so far. The aim of the article is to make an attempt to ask important research questions that would help understand the functioning of the medieval society, as well as polemics with a model of a fixed social ladder ingrained in the Middle Ages. The axis of the source analysis is a testament written by Stanisław from Koło, a 15th century miller from Wielkopolska. The author of the text ponders over the influences of millers, their property and role in local communities. A periphery source basis constitutes among others late-medieval court oaths, 16th century conscription registers or notes from local books to be found in Poznań’s "Słownik Historyczno-Geograficzny Wielkopolski w średniowieczu". The text is contributive in nature that is why many issues dealt with in it awaits their further investigation. What is postulated is among others studies on the scope of a mill compulsion, millers’ movables and fixed properties or, finally, an attempt to copy the milk network in the 14th, 15th and in the first half of the 16th century most carefully.
More...
Migratory movements have always occurred after major wars, and also as the consequence of many unresolved political, economic, social, cultural and other issues. Pursuant to the 1878 Berlin Congress the Ottoman Empire had to renounce three-fifths of its territory and one-fifth of its entire population, some five and a half million people, of which half were Muslim. The relations between the newly-created Balkan states and the Muslims are poorly or one-sidedly documented in nineteenth-century sources. Documentation of a journalistic nature is dominated by negative stereotypes of Muslims, and has nothing to say of the violence against Muslims that accompanied the explosion and course of the struggle for independence.
More...
Der Weg zur Anerkennung. Die Beziehungen zwischen Wien und Moskau 1918 bis 1924
More...
“Im Grunde habe ich mein ganzes Lebenlang über eines nachgedacht: Über das Verhältnis von Erscheinung und Noumen, über das Auffinden des Noumens in den Phänomenen, seine Darstellung, seine Verkörperung. Es geht um die Frage nach dem Symbol. Mein ganzes Leben habe ich nur über dieses eine Problem nachgedacht, das Problem des Symbols”. So schrieb Pave lFlorenskij in seinem autobiographisch ausgerichtetem Testament, welches er nach de rrussischen Februarrevolution 1917 zu verfassen begonnen hatte und unter dem Titel “Meinen Kindern” bis 1923 immer wieder ergänzte.
More...
Fragen des Militärwesens in der slowenischen Politik 1867 - 1914
More...
Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisens “Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches in Europa”. Ihr Stellenwert unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Joseph Hammers “Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches”
More...
The purpose of this study is to investigate the reading habits of the late fifteenth-century English gentry as their preferences would help to envisage the process of shaping political mentality and ultimately the identity of the future Tudor gentleman.
More...
Par cette démarche je me propose l’analyse des représentations du Dirigeant, celles qui apparaissent dans les oeuvres d’art plastiques dédiées à Nicolae Ceauºescu. Nous verrons que, par-dessus les personnages représentés et par-dessus les décors imaginés par l’artiste, la manière préférée de représentation artistique reste le portrait - aussi bien dans le cas de Nicolae Ceauºescu (le bénéficiaire principal, celui qui nous intéresse ici) ou de sa femme, Elena. La période qui m’intéresse concerne surtout les deux dernières décennies de la vie du Dirigeant, décennies marqués par un culte de la personnalité sans précédent dans l’histoire de la Roumanie. Par rapport au mythe du Dirigeant (sujet qui constitue l’enjeu d’une analyse plus détaillée que j’ai entreprise ces dernières années, le culte de la personnalité semble être, en premier lieu, un produit, lui aussi lié à (c’est-à-dire influencé par) une certaine culture politique1. Par « culte de la personnalité », j’entends l’ensemble des techniques, voies et moyens – et leur résultat – par lesquels sont démontrées (ou on essaie de démontrer) les caractéristiques exceptionnelles ou l’unicité d’un personnage (dans notre cas, un Dirigeant politique).
More...