Sanford Shieh: Necessity Lost: Modality and Logic in Early Analytic Philosophy, Vol. 1
Review of: Sanford Shieh: Necessity Lost: Modality and Logic in Early Analytic Philosophy, Vol. 1 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019, xxiv+441 pages.
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Review of: Sanford Shieh: Necessity Lost: Modality and Logic in Early Analytic Philosophy, Vol. 1 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019, xxiv+441 pages.
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The paper starts by briefly describing the so-called truth-functional approach to sentential operators, typical to logic, as opposed to the more multi-faceted approach of linguistics. The latter reflects the more complex, substantial relations between the contents of utterances, emphasizing the logico-semantical relations and functions of sentential operators. However, as an alternative to the pragmatically inclined critique of the truth-functional approach, the paper proposes two possible directions of explaining the specific content of sentential operators by virtue of which they transcend the role of mere truth functions. Firstly, the paper summarizes our previous investigations into the interactions between sentential operators and (1) the vector of the course of events described by a compound sentence, and (2) the direction of grammatical time captured by a compound sentence. The paper focuses on how this interaction is coordinated with the particular epistemic goal (prediction, explanation etc.) pursued when using the meaning of a complex sentence. Using the concepts of necessary and sufficient conditions, and by characterizing the vectors of condition (the if-vector), time and relevance (dominance or the epistemic vector), the paper demarcates the rules of correspondence for conditional operators as cases of combinatorics, as described by some linguists. Secondly, based on a distinction between different constructions the same operators as truth-functions, the paper provides a logico-semantical explanation of the specific meaning of the else, unless and although connectives, traditionally discussed by linguists. We believe that the extensions proposed here move the camp defending a logico-semantic approach to sentential operators at least somewhat closer to the camp of linguistic investigation.
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This text continues a cycle of articles devoted to general topics of scholastic logic in Lithuania. The first article of the cycle (Valatka 2020) investigated the beginning of the above mentioned logic and analyzed the its method and argumentation technique. This article, in turn, analyzes structure, object and form of scholastic logic in Lithuania. The author of the article concentrates on the object of the parts of this logic, namely, minor logic, or dialectics, and major logic. The article comes to conclusion that both dialectics and major logic regarded three operations of human intellect (apprehension, proposition and reasoning) as its proper object. Dialectics was interested in the forms of these operations; therefore this part of scholastic logic can be considered a certain equivalent of modern formal logic. Meanwhile, major logic concentrated on contents of those operations. Hence, we can understand it as the scholastic theory of cognition. The article also concludes that works of scholastic logic in Lithuania were not independent and authentic texts. Due to role of authorities in scholastic method, treatises, manuals, logic courses were commentaries on the treatises of Aristotle and the other authorities of scholastic logic in the spirit of certain scholastic trends or even eclecticism.
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I explore some issues in the logics and dialectics of practical modalities connected with the Consequence Argument (CA) considered as the best argument for the incompatibility of free will and determinism. According to Lewis (1981) in one of the possible senses of (in)ability, the argument is not valid; however, understood in the other of its possible senses, the argument is not sound. This verdict is based on the assessment of the modal version of the argument, where the crucial notion is power necessity (“no choice” operator), while Lewis analyses the version where the central notion is the locution “cannot render false.”Lewis accepts closure of the relevant (in)ability operator under entailment but not closure under implication. His strategy has a seemingly strange corollary: a free predetermined agent is able (in a strong, causal sense) to falsity the conjunction of history and law. I compare a Moorean position with respect to radical skepticism and knowledge closure with ability closure and propose to explain Lewis’s strategy in the framework of his Moorean stance.
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The paper examines the division of cognitive space in Antiquity as exemplified by the two most influential classifications of sciences, by Aristotle and Geminus, which underlie all subsequent classifications of scientific disciplines until the 18th century. Aristotle, considering the mathēmata in their comparison with the “first” and especially with the “second”, physical philosophy, proceeds from the independence of all three kinds of epistēmai and strives to draw the most rigid boundaries possible both between them and within the field of mathēmata. Geminus’ classification reflects the far-reaching differentiation of sciences at the end of Hellenism, when almost all of them acquired several auxiliary disciplines, theoretical or applied, and when “mathematics” became synonymous with “science.”
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Wason’s selection task is a current cognitive problem. It is a reasoning task including a conditional sentence that only sometimes is correctly solved by participants. It has been claimed that the versions of the task that are often properly executed are only those in which the conditional sentence fulfills the criterion given by Chrysippus of Soli for the conditional. In this paper, this point is checked by considering a relevant number of versions of the aforementioned task in order to review whether or not their conditionals meet Chrysippus’ requirement.
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The article deals with the process of founding and further development of the new rhetoric, a theory of argumentation developed by the Belgian philosopher Chaїm Perelman (1912–1984) and his co-worker Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca (1899–1987). The intellectual and philosophical backgrounds of the authors and some key characteristics of their theoretical approaches are described. The new rhetoric: (а) is primarily concerned with argument or practical reasoning, (b) suggests that figures of speech may be arguments instead of merely ornaments, (c) with its goal to influence minds, new rhetoric is a dynamic field of study, (d) it is complimentary rather than in opposition to formal reasoning. According to Perelman, the theory of argumentation conceived as a new rhetoric or dialectic, covers the whole range of discourse thataims at persuasion and conviction, whatever the audience addressed and whatever the subject matter. Perelman presents his new rhetoric as a much better form of logic than Cartesian deductive, stringent reasoning, at least where law and other values-based systems are concerned.Perelman challenged the unwholesome assumption that what we cannot know with mathematical certainly is necessarily arbitrary, irrational, and subjective. Perelman recognized «reasoned conviction» as a bridge to knowledge, although he was aware that it was a less perfect source of cognition than verified certainty.It is explained how the idea of developing the new rhetoric was born out of dissatisfaction with logical positivism or neopositivism (The Vienna Circle’s theories and ideas) and which classical and modern sources inspired the authors in developing a specific logic of value judgments that could deal with argumentation about actions, choices, decisions and without dismissing such argumentation as irrational. The rhetorical framework of the theory is expounded and an overview is provided of the key notions and concepts of Perelman’s ‘new rhetoric’ – the notions of adherence, audience (particular and universal audience), persuasion are explained. According to Perelman, the new rhetoric is based on the idea that since argumentation aims at securing the adherence of those to whom it is addressed, it is, in its entirety, relative to the audience to be influenced. Рerelman’s position on the difference between formal logic and argumentation is analyzed.
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Artificial intelligence takes its epistemological infrastructure from logic. The science of logic occupies an important place in both philosophical and engineering fields. In the article, the influence level and development stages of the science of logic, the common field of the studies of artificial intelligence, which has influenced both engineering sciences and social sciences since the second half of the last century, will be explained. The effects of Aristotle's logic on artificial intelligence, which is the classical period of the science of logic behind the studies of artificial intelligence, and the effect level of fuzzy logic on artificial intelligence that emerged in the 20th century will be discussed in detail.
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This article poses the question of whether what we are witnessing today can be properly described as “fascistic.” It argues that it can if we understand fascism as an attack on liberal democracy resulting from the now chronic (rather than acute) crisis of capitalism. Like the fascism of the twentieth century, this entails an endocolonizing logic that nonetheless relinquishes its claim on a future increasingly imperilled by the nature of the Covid-19 pandemic in the context of the impending climate emergency.
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Władysław Biegański is one of the members of the so-called Polish school of philosophy of medicine. He was, next to Ludwik Fleck, the best-known Polish scientist who contributed to the development of philosophy of medicine. Despite his active medical activity, he published over 130 scientific works in the fields not only of medicine, but also of philosophy, epistemology, logic and ethics. His experiences as a doctor and scientist allowed him to look at philosophical problems in an innovative way. I would like to focus on Bieganski’s pioneering remarks on analogy, methodology of science and theory of cognition. Bieganski wanted to break with the myth of a scientist who, thanks to her extraordinary mental acuity and some lucky events, makes a scientific discovery. Biegański analyzed the history of science through the concept of analogy, and thanks to this approach he reconstructed the development of medicine and biology. Bieganski wanted to formulate a method for modern medicine and thus enable its development in Poland. In my article, I will present his biography within the background of the era and will outline theoretical characteristics of his works.
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In this paper, I shall propose the construction of a three-valued logic of beliefs, which I call: LSB3_1 (short for: Three-valued Logic for a type of Strong Belief). I shall also state and prove the completeness of LSB3_1 with respect to a given semantics. LSB3_1 is based on preformal assumptions and intuitions, which are stated in section 1. Section 2 includes the syntax and division of LSB3_1 statements into internal and external. Section 3 presents the semantics of LSB3_1, as well as a number of tautologies and non-tautological formulae in LSB3_1 with their intuitive interpretation. The axiomatic system for LSB3_1 and its comparison to Kleene’s strong logic are provided in section 4. The completeness theorem for LSB3_1 is presented in section 5. I shall define the term conjunctive normal form and provide lemmas which lead to proving the reduction of the LSB3_1 language formulae before proving the completeness theorem.
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Speaking, conversation, dialogue and discussion are four synonymous terms and refer to four related phenomena. Speaking is a sensible articulation of sounds by a personal subject, and as such is a condition for other activities. Conversation occurs when at least two people talk to each other on a topic. Dialogue and discussion, which are a form of conversation between persons, are characterized by different objects, purpose and structure. In both cases, conversation is foundational. The main condition of dialogue and discussion consists in the freedom of the will of persons. The main purpose of dialogue is the recognition of the views of participants. The participants in a discussion must not own equal competence. Discussion is a formalized dialogue. Thus, the purpose of a discussion is to solve problems. Therefore, there must be a definite object in discussion, and the details and notions employed must be stated. Moreover, the participants in discussion must own a similar competence. Lastly, discussion possesses its own internal and logical structure.
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The paper describes the conception of logic in Polish didactics authored by the Commission of National Education (KEN), an important educational institution of the European Enlightenment. Since the documents of the Commission refer to a vision of science presented by such influential works then as the Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire universel raisonné [Great French Encyclopedia], the paper compares the requirements from the Commission’s programmer with the encyclopaedic entries that entail logical problems broadly understood. It turns out that the Commission, following the Encyclopédie, not only recommended a list of textbooks of logic but also shared its eclectic vision of logic. Although it is characteristic of modernity to take a relative approach to the importance of traditional logic, transformed into science on method, or literally an outline of epistemology, understood according to É. Condillac as a specific form of metaphysics, nevertheless some elements of logic were eclectically made valid. This logic, from the times of I. Kant, has been defined as formal logic. Practical logical skills were preferred to the knowledge of logical theories. At the same time attention was paid to the meaning of natural logical skills, and drills in logical reasoning when studying languages and mathematics. Despite preferences for the analytical method they also noticed the importance of synthetic method. It seems also that although the documents of the Commission do not say anything about the teaching of syllogistic issues, in didactic practice inspired by the Encyclopédie in the schools controlled by the Commission, the room was made to teach these problems. Condillac’s book was preferred in the schools controlled by the Commission, nevertheless, it was not, as in the case of other textbooks, a must on the reading list, an obligatory reading matter, therefore it was not published in Poland. The conception of logic presented by the Commission as modelled on the Encyclopédie managed to avoid the one-sidedness of Condillac’s approach, the approach that in fact eliminated the teaching of logic.
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The article is an attempt at explaining the category of logical form used by Ludwig Wittgenstein in his Tractatus logico-philosophicus by using concepts from Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s The Monadology. There are many similarities and analogies between those works, and the key concept for them is the category of the inner and acknowledged importance of consideration based on basic categories of thinking about the world. The Leibnizian account allows for a broader look at Wittgenstein’s analysis of the relation between propositions and facts, between language and the world. Using the Hanoverian philosopher’s terminology allows for the demonstration of the ambivalence of the concept of logical form in the philosophy of Wittgenstein and also the metaphysical nature of his first book.
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Philosophical statements are often suppositions. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz proposes in Nouveaux Essais sur l’entendement humain, 1704, a method of the construction of assertive conditionals occurring between any philosophical suppositions. If we can infer a philosophical statement from any suppositions then the implication between these suppositions and the obtained statement is assertive. In the article, some examples of the application of Leibniz’s method are considered.
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One of the main goals of modern philosophy was to achieve an in-depth insight into the foundations of empirical knowledge. The problem was expected to be resolved by the analysis of experience. However, the road to a plausible account of experience was at the very beginning obstructed by turning the analysis into a search for clear and distinctive elements of experience and by sticking to purely intellectual intuition as means of this analysis. Moreover, clear and distinctive elements of experience were thought of as the basis of cognitive certainty. Both psychology and philosophy, at least until the nineteen-thirties, were deeply influenced by this essentially rationalistic conception of sensor experience. It is gestalt psychology and phenomenology that should be merited for overcoming that ill-conceived model. Only by taking into account the immediate sensor relation between the human subject and the environment, it is possible to show the kind of unity which is the prerequisite of human intellect.
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Review of: Jacek L. ŁAPIŃSKI - Stanisław Zięba’s Informacyjny wymiar wszechświata, życia i człowieka, Warszawa: PWN, 2020.
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The article is a logical reconstruction of the main elements of modern religious consciousness. For this, a form of inference is used that should satisfy the requirement of system analysis. The most important role in this system is played by the phenomenon of secular consciousness. Here he acts as a general mediator (medius terminus). The originality of its ontological status is underlined. Accordingly, here arises the question of opposites (extreme terms), the opposition of which should remove this secular consciousness. To solve this problem, the author turns to the history of world religions. At the «junctions» of these religions, two forces always find themselves, the contradiction between which is the engine of this history. This, first, the strength of the religious tradition conservative element), and, secondly, the power of religious innovation (a revolutionary element). Contrary to popular belief about the decay of religious life, the author defends the thesis that in a certain sense this confrontation between religious tradition and religious innovation will always exist. As long as a person is alive and thinking, he will be concerned about the question of God. Only in modern times, the struggle between the old and the new in religion has one distinctive feature. In history, it was resolved naturally: old civilizations and cultures, the core of which was a certain religion, died and replaced by new ones. Now the entire responsibility for this withdrawal fell on the shoulders of the modern secular state. Thus, the reasoning of modern religious consciousness has developed completely in itself and for itself. It has acquired the following character: «religious tradition – secular consciousness – religious innovation». Here the author uses the «horizontal» form of inference, which Hegel suggested in his Science of Logic. This form allows not only to structure the basic elements of this system, but also to consider further ways of its development. The latter is especially important in connection with the complex of problems that arise before a secular state in connection with the theory and practice of conducting a religious expert examination. The causes of the emergence of the system of modern religious consciousness are analyzed. It establishes its relationship with the process of historical development of religion and philosophy.
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The basis of virtual law is the understanding it as a reality of absolute chance. The absolute opportunity, along with the openness, anonymity, creativity and freedom are the essential characteristics of virtual reality. It makes possible the use of the concept of «virtuality» in the field of being law. The virtual nature of the law manifests itself in the semantic space of language best of all. Therefore, a methodological discourse on the topic virtualistic of law is precisely in the field of structural linguistics, hermeneutics, phenomenology and the theory of deconstruction. Already grounded in the philosophy of deontological essence of law is not limited to the understanding of law as of Existence-Shoulds, and is revealed as Existence-Absolute possibility. The reality of law today is virtualized in terms of communication, expression, methodology understanding and representation of meanings. The ontology of the law virtualistic allows the law to take its place in the modern plural reality. The hermeneutic method used in the study not in terms simply of the method of interpretation of the text (W. Dilthey), but in sense of as to understandsng existence (H.‑G. Gadamer) in the framework of the ontological hermeneutics. Brings its own methodological feature in this study and hermeneutics of factuality of M. Heidegger. The «facticity» – a purely phenomenological category – has a distinct temporal character, is a subjective experience of thing. While the epistemology and all logical focus on the universal, objective, timeless, facticity focuses on identification of temporary, casual, spontaneous, particular, individual, single and unique. The facticity is the access to the event, which is not consciously, but experienced. The law deontology of the Existing and Proper built through techniques of the semantic logic of possible worlds. Legal category modalities (obligatory, permitted, prohibited, proper, desirable, necessary, casual) work in semantic logic, detecting the probabilistic nature of legal meaning that is the essential characteristic of the virtual. Exploring the ontology of the virtual, we rely on such categories as: ability, potentiality, energy, activity, actualization, realization. The term «virtuality» in the philosophy of law is used not in the value space of mechanical reproduction. In this case, the «virtuality» is the broad generic term which characterizes a way of the Existing today’s reality, the law in its objective, subjective and symbolic dimensions.
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Background: Legal reasoning is as interesting and compiled as the problem of legal theory. It is a branch of science which in its deliberations must refer to the findings of sciences such as logic and linguistics, where the reasoning comes from. The presuppositions present in logic and linguistics are the best example of this. Their analysis takes place in the law, although so far it has been undertaken extremely rarely. In the current legal discourse, presuppositions are revived. Due to their numerous linguistic-breaking properties, lawyers look for a place for them in legal reasoning. They do so based on the findings of logical and linguistic sciences, forgetting the existence of the concept of presupposition of Jerzy Wróblewski’s legal reasoning. The subject of the research is the analysis of this somewhat forgotten concept of the Polish legal theorist. Research purpose: Jerzy Wróblewski, based on the existing concepts of the presupposition of pragmatic inference, proposed his own, modified version of the “presupposition of legal reasoning”, which, in his opinion, can be used in constructing the theory of legal reasoning. Wróblewski’s concept did not catch on in the circles of theoreticians or practitioners of law. Most researchers have criticized her. The aim of the article is an attempt to defend the concept of presupposition of legal reasoning against the criticism that has been raised so far. Methods: the research method is a linguistic and logical analysis of selected concepts. By making a linguistic analysis, the correct understanding of the proposed terms is established. By logical juxtaposing the existing concepts, one seeks to defend Wróblewski’s concepts against the critical remarks. Conclusions: an analysis of Wróblewski’s concept leads to the establishment of arguments that partially counteract the previous criticism. The work also presents conceptual contradictions contained in the concept, which require clarification in further research.
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