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In order to understand social reforms regarding women’s rights in nineteenth century India, one needs to begin by taking a look at the ideas of “rule of law” and at the “rule of colonial difference”, which animated legislation initiatives in the field of gender and discrimination in colonial India.
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The presented contribution analyses – in the context of Jan Zouhar’s research scope and also on the background of the professional interests of the immortalized František Kautman (1927–2016) – the ‘philosophy’ of T. G. Masaryk’s (1850–1937) work. At the beginning, there are new publications on his alleged origin from the family of the Austro-Hungarian monarch, further their fictionalization, the investigation of his late sexual life and, last but not least, the flow of his juvenile correspondence with Zdenka Šemberová (1841–1912). For her, this communication was full of erotic and intellectual hopes which were not fulfilled and led to her lifelong loneliness and resignation, especially after the death of her father Alois Vojtěch Šembera (1807–1882), professor of Vienna Slavonic studies, one of the first opponents of the medieval authenticity of the legendary Czech Manuscripts, all of this on the background of the life of the university and Czech Vienna, where they both lived, and the adjacent Moravia. Masaryk, with his weak knowledge of standard Czech, Šemberová, at that time already a mature lady, record in their correspondence the course of their lives, their opinions, readings, and document their intellectual maturing. Their correspondence represents evidence of the lives of both: Masaryk was gradually becoming a scholar and mainly a politician, and understood their correspondence, from which Zdenka expected also an amorous fulfilment, as a mere practical exercise in stylistics and a confrontation of opinions. Their correspondence throws a new, not always favourable light on the youth of the future Czechoslovak president. Already there, the elementary features of his personality were taking their shapes.
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Two translation procedures from the 12th century are the subject of consideration in this critical essay: the way in which Anselm of Havelberg’s debates were translated in Constantinople in 1136 and the reading by Gerhoh of Reichersberg and his followers of the resolutions of the Synod of the Church in Constantinople in 1166. The aim of the analysis is to refute the widely held view that the nature of Latin translations in the 12th century was constantly the execution verbum pro verbo.
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The paper presents a comparative study that aims at the sometimes problematic cyclicality of axiological education (literary-artistic axiology) approached from various perspectives. The motivation for the investigation of the literary-artistic axiology of students in the context of studying texts from foreign literatures is determined by both theoretical and practical premises. Western specialists in the field of reading process define literary-artistic values according to several perspectives, each discovering a determining factor, deduced from the nature of the participants in the reading process: the author of the literary-artistic text, the literary text, the concrete reader / the virtual reader, to which is added the overlap of the social experience in a certain field, the ethical, political and ideological social approaches, as well as the philosophical, artistic, theoretical-literary dogmas and systems, etc.
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Today, when questioning the meaning of life, we identify certain attitudes. In the following lines, I propose to specify some of these attitudes, which I will later analyse from a theological point of view, highlighting the specifics of Christian thought regarding the aforementioned question. On the one hand, the inspiration for such an approach came after reading the first part of the last paper published by the Member of the Romanian Academy Ștefan Afloroaei, Despre simțul vieții [‘On the meaning of life’], entitled, „Din nou întrebarea cu privire la sensul vieții” [‘Again the question of the meaning of life’], in particular, the chapter, „Un reflex al acestui timp: chestionarea sceptică a întrebării” [‘A Reflection of This Time: The Sceptical Questioning of the Question’]. We have identified some arguments on which such an attitude of the authors is based, such as: David E. Cooper, John Wisdom, Kai Nielsen, Tim. J. Mawson, Constantin Noica, Jean Grondin. On the other hand, in the theological reflections we had as source of inspiration, first of all, an explanatory note of Father Dumitru Stăniloae to the apology of Saint Athanasius the Great regarding the fact that Christ asked questions humanly, highlighting at the same time that He humbled Himself by becoming a Man to such an extent that He assumed all that was proper to this nature, including the question of asking questions, but not the sin that entered into this nature through disobedience. The explanatory note (in which Father Stăniloae deepens what does the fact of asking ourselves questions represents from a theological point of view, together with another text from the Homilies and speeches of Saint Basil the Great) is in fact the foundation of the theological reflections I develop in these pages on the question of the meaning of life. At the end of this study, I will conclude that, from a theological point of view, the question of the meaning of life provides an opportunity to meet ourselves, God, and others.
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Creationism is the biblical teaching that God created the heavens and the earth, bringing everything into concrete existence through His creative Word and will. Through this creative act, God shows that Creation has its principle and purpose in God, making Him transparent. All varieties of birds were created from water. The expression "after their kind" is used only when life is being built, in the last three days of Creation, to understand that God, during this interval, built all living creatures on earth. This expression means that the type of animal is preserved by reproduction, which entitles us to say that the species did not evolve but remained the same. The noun "kind", "type", "classification", "species" shows there are fixed types or classifications. It is true that, within genetic limits, animals can evolve, but one species cannot transform into another. The main causes of the theory of biological evolution: natural selection and mutations eliminate from its assumptions the existence of a Creator. In arguing with evolutionists, creationists point out that for a flightless animal to become "flying", almost every anatomical structure would require changes, a theory that is not supported by any (fossil) evidence. Although we cannot fully understand the divine reason, Christians today can extract useful meaning from this creative action. Thus, we do not read them as myths, but try to value the sacred text and discover its divine message. Saint Ambrose shows that birds can provide "a parable for our living", because in them, "social and military leadership is natural", but in humans it is "forced and enslaved". The entire creation testifies to the Unity, Omnipotence and Wisdom of its Creator, which also manifests itself in the existence of a purpose for living beings, that of living, to offer oneself, which for man constitutes a path to salvation.
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Бесспорно, проблема человека является центральной для сознания нашей эпохи (на этом особенно настаивал Макс Шелер). Она обострена той страшной опасностью, которой подвергается человек со всех сторон. Переживая агонию, человек хочет знать, кто он, откуда он пришел, куда идет и к чему предназначен. Во второй половине ХIХ в. были замечательные мыслители, которые, переживая агонию, внесли трагическое начало в европейскую культуру и более других сделали для постановки проблемы человека, – это, прежде всего, Достоевский, Ницше, Кирхегардт. Есть два способа рассмотрения человека – сверху и снизу, от Бога и духовного мира и от бессознательных космических и теллурических сил, заложенных в человеке. Из тех, которые смотрели на человека снизу, быть может, наибольшее значение имеют Маркс и Фрейд, из писателей последней эпохи – Пруст. Но целостной антропологии не было создано: видели те или иные стороны человека, а не человека целостного, в его сложности и единстве. Я предполагаю рассматривать проблему человека как философ, а не как теолог. Современная мысль стоит перед задачей создания философской антропологии как основной философской дисциплины. В этом направлении действовал М. Шелер, и этому помогает так называемая экзистенциальная философия.
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Новая западноевропейская философия, начиная с Декарта, усматривает в «я», в неопределимом далее носителе личного индивидуального сознания, некое абсолютно первичное, ни с чем иным не сравнимое и все иное объемлющее начало. Этот носитель и центр личного сознания совпадает, с этой точки зрения, с тем, что называется «гносеологическим субъектом», т. е. с «познающим» или «сознающим». Все остальное, что так или иначе доступно человеческому сознанию и познанию, противостоит в качестве предмета или содержания познания, в качестве «не-я» этому «я» и вместе с тем объемлется им, так как существует только в нем или в отношении к нему, для него. По сравнению с этой абсолютной первичностью и с этим верховенством «я», с этой идеальной точкой, в которой бытие есть для себя, в которой оно впервые раскрывается, озаряется сознанием, то собирательное целое, которое мы разумеем, «мы», есть нечто совершенно производное и внешнее. Под «мы» здесь может разуметься (в согласии с обычным учением грамматики, для которой «мы» есть «множественное число» от «я») только субъективно-сознаваемая множественность отдельных субъектов, собрание или сумма многих «я», которая, в отличие от самого «я», есть уже не «субъект», не что-то первичное и для себя самого сущее, а лишь содержание сознания каждого отдельного «я».
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Очищение христианства от исторической скорлупы ведет к его уничтожению, как в протестантизме. Не в целом, а все-таки есть определенный рисунок христианского миропонимания. Зло – в отсутствии церковного миропонимания.
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