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The paper discusses some elements of the tradition of martyrdom among Muslims innorthern Nigeria. It describes the basic frameworks of the concept of martyrdom in Islamwith special reference to its contemporary usage. Then it discusses the shape of the ideaof martyrdom during the times of Usman ɗan Fodio’s jihad. It further examines the conceptof martyrdom as presented in the speeches of Muhammad Yusuf, the ideologue ofthe Boko Haram organisation, as well as its practical implementation in the times of thecurrent rebellion in northern Nigeria.
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Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit soil ein Beitrag geleistet werden zur Erforschung der Geschichte jener Zengger Hauptleute, denen die Fachwelt bisher — den spaerlichen Hinweisen in der Literatur nach zu schliessen — noch zu wenig Interesse geschenkt hatte. So zeichnet sich auch die Gestalt Kaspar Raabs nur schemenhaft vom Hintergrund der Ereignisse in der Zeitspanne von 1576—1585 ab; ueber seine Herkunft, seinen Lebenslauf und seinen Werdegang als Soldat schweigen die Quellen (die Protokolle des Kaiserlichen Hofkriegsrates sowie die des Innerosterreic-hischen Hofkriegsrates im Kriegsarchiv Wien).Kaspar Raab wurde im Jahre 1576 als Nachfolger Johann Fernbergers die Hauptmannschaft Zengg/Senj uebertragen und ihm auferlegt, fuer die Einstellung der Piratenakte der Uskoken Sorge zu tragen. Seine Massnahmen zeitigten Anfang-serfolge, sodass die beiden ersten Jahre seiner Hauptmannschaft verhaeltnismaessig ruhig verliefen und keine bemerkenswerten Ueberfaelle zur See durch Uskoken verzeichnet wurden. Ab dem Jahre 1579 mehrten sich diese wieder, wovon sowohl Venezianer als auch Tiirken zu Wasser und zu Lande betroffen wurden. Die Handstreiche der Uskoken gegen Tiirken und ihre Einfaelle auf tuerkisches Territorium waren Teil intensiver Vorbereitungsarbeiten, die auf eine gemeinsame Erhebung aller Balkanvoelker gegen das Osmanische Reich hinzielten, die damals Erfolg versprach, als es sich zwar auf dem Hoehepunkt territorialer Ausweitung, jedoch auch im Zustand beginnender innerer Zersetzung befand. Fiir die Rueckeroberung der von den Tuerken besetzten Balkanhalbinsel war die seit 1537 tuerkische Fe-stung Klis als Ausgangspunkt vorgesehen, von der aus dann der Aufstand nach Bosnien und in die Herzegowina haette getragen werden sollen. Zengger Uskoken und ihre Wojwoden, die Brueder Daničić waren bereitwillige Heifer und Mittelsmaenner der Verschwoerer in den tuerkischen Gebieten, mit denen sie auf ihren Streifzuegen Verbindung unterhielten. Die Ausfuehrung dieser Plaene misslang jedoch mehrmals, woran auch die Uskoken wegen ihres unbedachten und voreiligen Vorgehens Mitschuld trugen. Welche Rolle Kaspar Raab in diesem Vorhaben spielte, ist nicht bekannt.Das fuer Hauptmann Raab folgenschwerste Ereignis seiner Hauptmannschaft bildet der von ihm beim Kriegsgericht in Karlstadt /Karlovac angestrengte Prozess gegen die Wojwoden Georg und Mathias Daničić und gegen den Wojwoden Mathias Tuerdislavić/Tuerdislavich, im Jahre 1580. Raab zeih sie der Widersaetzlichkeit gegen seine Bemuehungen um Recht und Ordnung in der Stadt und unter seinen untergebenen Soldaten, der Aufwiegelung dieser gegen ihren Hauptmann und der Solidaritaet mit von ihm verurteilten Missetaetern. Die Zeugen aber, die das Kriegsgericht in Zengg/Senj selbst aus der dortigen Einwohnerschaft, den Richtern und Raeten sowie den Besatzungssoldaten verhoerte, widerlegten nicht nur fast einstimmig diese Anklage Kaspar Raabs, sondern belasteten diesen schwer. Es erwies sich auf Grand dieses Verhoers, dass die gesamte Einwohnerschaft und die Soldaten die Angeklagten weitaus hoeher schaetzten als den Hauptmann, dem sie Parteilichkeit, Ungerechtigkeit, Eigennutz und Nachlaessigkeit in der Erfuellung seiner Hauptmannspflichten vorwarfen. Auf Grand der Zeugenaussagen wurden die Wojwoden vom Kriegsgericht freigesprochen, Kaspar Raab aber selbst auf seine Anklagepunkte angeklagt und vom Gericht auch fuer schuldig befunden. Gegen dieses Urteil legte Kaspar Raab beim Erzherzog selbst Berufung ein. Mit Rueck-sicht auf mehrere in diesem Verfahren unterlaufene Formalfehler empfahl der Inneroesterreichische Hofkriegsrat dem Erzherzog die Annullierang des Prozesses, ungeachtet der Gefahr, hiemit einen Praezedenzfall fuer kuenftige Widersaetzlich-keiten gegen Hauptleute zu schaffen. Der Erzherzog ordnete die Annulierung des Gerichtsurteils gegen Kaspar Raab im Jahre 1583 an. Sie scheint jedoch nie rechtskräftig geworden zu sein, da Kaspar Raab noch im Jahre 1585 darum ersuchte. Die rehabilitierten Wojwoden setzten mit den Uskoken ihre Piratenfahrten zur See fort und vereitelten auch weiterhin jede Bemuehung des Hauptmannes um Unterbindung dieser. Resigniert suchte schliesslich Raab 1585 um seine Entlas-sung an, die ihm der Kaiser, mit seiner Amtsfuehrung unzufrieden, gewaehrte. Furio Molza wurde sein Nachfolger
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This war (in the XVIth Cent.) is now considered as the war for the free trade in the Adriatic and for the free trade with Bosnian raw materials towards Italy. The new situation leading to the increase of trade is also considered. The Ottoman empire ceases to be a military threat to the West. As the war for the Turks is not a source of gain any more the exploitation of the peasant increases and the Empire is obliged to export more goods. So the Ottoman Empire becomes a trade partner for the West.The western state stops to be a corporational state and becames absolutistic, a state-entreprise. As the trade of the Balkans goes though the Adriatic ports the Uskok war starts.For the Uskoks this corsair-war was the war for the trade and is compared to the corsair war between, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands for the America trade in the XVIth to the XVIIIth Cent. For Austria this was the war for the free trade from Rijeka and Triest towards Loreto and Bari. Venice fought for the control of the Adriatic and the compulsorly passing of every ship though the port of Venice where a tribute was to be paid. Venice won the war defeating the Archduke Ferdinand in Istria and obliging him to withdraw the Uskoks from Senj.This war was not a religious war any more, Venice fought with the Turks and with the aide of James I. of England. Austria with Spain. In the peace treatise the problems of the territorial sea was discussed, this same problem who was discussed in Den Haag in 1930.In the final part the Uskok myth was evaluated. It was created by August Šenoa in 1975. as a Croat national, liberal and military myth, which influenced greatly our spiritual life and particularly the poetry of Kranjčević. The circumstances and reasons for the creation of such a myth were considered, it were the peasant uprising in Bosnia in 1875. Bare Poparić modernized in 1936. this myth adding the element of guerilla and the sea to Senoa's image of the uskoks who are mainly citizen. For Bare Poparić they are guerillas who first became aware of the importance of the sea for Croatia.
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The paper analyzes Constantine Leontiev’s attitude towards Greek-Bulgarian Church controversy in the second half of the 19th century. His position is presented in the context of the Russian ecclesiastical policy and the broader historical and ideological context of the time. Leontiev took the side of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, which was a successor and custodian of the Byzantine cultural and religious tradition. His views on the Bulgarian ecclesiastical question were in confrontation with both the official Russian position and the public opinion, which supported the Bulgarians due to Slavophile sympathies.
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The current article highlights the resemblance between the great Holy Fathers of the Church: St. Athanasius and St. Augustine. In the middle 4th century, when St. Augustine was born, Christians were already divided into two main parties: those agreeing with the faith profession of Nicaea (325) and those who were against. The pro-Nicaean party was lead with maximum tenacity for almost half of a century by St. Athanasius. Even if the whole world seemed to be touched by Arianism, Athanasius stood steady on his decision to defend the creed expressed by the Ecumenical Council of Nicaea. Shortly after the decease of this great defender of the faith in Alexandria, the converted Augustine receives the baptism on Easter night in 387, through the hands of the famous Bishop of Milano, St. Ambrosius. After that, Augustine joined with full strength in mind and spirit, the fight against the heretics, taking the lead of the party faithful to the Nicaea-Constantinopolitan creed. These two great saints left their spiritual mark on Christian Antiquity, because, while presenting the Christian Doctrine to the pagans, they were also correcting the heretics, and strengthening the faithful Christians in living fully agreeing to the Nicaea-Constantinopolitan creed.
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Iuliu Scriban was one of the most important Romanian theologians of the first half of the twentieth century, with an impressive publishing activity. He also corresponded, throughout his life, with many personalities of the Church of the time, both in the country and especially abroad. One of those with whom he exchanged a few letters was Arsenie Stadnitsky, one of the most learned hierarchs of the Russian Church of the first four decades of the twentieth century. We publish six letters found in the State Archives of the Russian Federation sent by Iuliu Scriban, between August 1907 and December 1910, during his term in Bucharest, Baden-Badsk, Baden-Stadt respectively in Novgorod. In these epistles the common interest of the two in the great problems of the Christian world, in the events that took place in the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant spaces, in the disturbances in the Romanian Orthodox Church or in the Russian Orthodox Church, etc., is very well observed. From the writings of the young archimandrite, it is clear what the "reading grid" theologians in the West, Romania and Russia had, what they were interested in, how they were preparing to fight the currents that could harm Orthodoxy and how they thought it could meet the challenges facing people of the Church.
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Book-Review: Keith Lowe, Prisoners of History. What Monuments to the Second World War Tell Us About Our History and Ourselves. London: William Collins, 2020, 346 strani. Reviewed by: Ivan Smiljanić.
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In the following contribution, the author analyses the upheaval in Lower Styria (especially in the “endangered” areas) through the prism of the examples of the reckoning with the Lower Styrian Germans. The establishment of the new state terrifed the Germans. Many German civil servants were dismissed practically every day, while, on the other hand, the Slovenian side euphorically looked towards the future. The events that followed spread hatred (and fear) of the Germans, who felt increasingly threatened. The most fervent “defence” of the Lower Styrian Germans came fom the Grazer Tagblat newspaper fom Graz, which kept constantly arguing (for two decades) that Lower Styria should be annexed back to the German nation (which eventually really happened).
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Conference-Report: “Poletna šola o politični misli v času tranzicije (in o njej) v vzhodni Srednji Evropi”. 16-20 July, Ljubljana. Reported by:Lucija Balikić.
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The article discusses the teaching of contemporary history in primary and secondary schools in the socialist Slovenia/Yugoslavia based on the systematic overview and analysis of school curricula and history textbooks between 1945 and 1990. The research focuses on the political use of history as one of the key instruments of legitimising the communist rule. Its main legitimation points were the National Liberation Struggle during World War II, anti-fascism, and the social revolution. Another important legitimising tenet was the concept of resolving the national question; i.e. the principle of brotherhood and unity. After the split between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in 1948, Tito’s resistance to Stalin, selfmanagement, and non-alignment also entered the historical canon as the specific qualities of the Yugoslav socialism.
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Review of: Piotr Kosicki, Catholics on the Barricades: Poland, France, and »Revolution«, 1891–1956. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018, xxviii + 392 strani. Reviewed by: Maja Lukanc.
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The present study aims to analyze the relationship between the so‑called ‘bourgeois’ intellectuals (socialized and educated in prestigious cultural groups in the interwar society) and the Romanian secret police, the Securitate, from three perspectives: repression, re‑education, and social reinsertion. The main argument is that all three phases corresponded to Politburo’s political approaches directly related to the evolution of internal or international political events of the late 1950s and early 1960s. The sources used are the Securitate files of the persons convicted in the ‘Noica–Pillat trial’ from 1960. The research method is qualitative analysis combining an institutional approach of the Securitate files with a case study. Consequently, the article focuses on the case of Constantin Noica, a prominent Romanian intellectual. He was sentenced to prison in 1960, pardoned in 1964, and later used by the regime in power service. The Securitate used Constantin Noica’s friendship with Emil Cioran and Mircea Eliade to attract prestigious intellectuals back to Romania and enhance the nationalist orientation of the regime through philosophy.
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Mit der Okkupation Bosniens und der Herzegowina (Hercegovina) se¬itens Österreich-Ungarns, im Jahre 1878., brach eine neue Ära in der Gesch¬ichte dieser Lander ein. Bis daher der eurpäischen gelehrten Öffentlichkeit unbekannt, fügen sich Bosnien u. d. Herzegowina immer mehr in das okono- numische und kulturelle System Europa’s ein. Die Okkupationsverwaltung bestrebt sich systematisch, die Bande Bosniens u. d. Herzegowina mit der Doppclmonnrchie, ja sogar die Beziehungen mit dem übrigen Europa zu vertiefen. Zu diesem Zweck wird ein neues wissenschaftliches Centrum ge¬stiftet, wie es das im Monat Februar d. J. 1888 gegründete Landesmuseum war. Bald darauf erscheint im J. 1889 sein »Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja<t ge¬nannter Bote, und schon im J. 1892 beginnt die Wiener Ausgabe desselben in deutscher Sprache unter dem Titel »Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen«. Der Organisator der Okkupationsverwaltung von Bosnien u. d. Herzegowina und ihr Haup(Verwalter Benjamin Kallay. Minister der gemeinsamen Finanzen, war am eifrigsten bestrebt, die zivilisalorische Rolle (Mission) der Doppel¬monarchie in Bosnien und d Herzegowina vor dem Angesicht Europa's bekan¬ntzumachen und zu unterstreichen. Zu diesem Zweck forderte er die Grün¬dung ind die Tätigkeit des Landesmuseums und siener wissenschaftlichen Editionen. Er unterstützte auch die Herausgabe einzelner besonders bedeuten¬der Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums. Da Ende des XIX. Jahrhun¬derts in Europa die archäologische und die nntrropologische Wissenschaft eigens geschatzl waren, so war man auch in Bosnien und der Herzegowina meistens um die Ausfindigmachung und die Publikation neuer archäologi¬scher Entdeckungen bemüht. An diesem Werke arbeiteten einige hervorragende Fachleute, deren Resultate sich schon im Anfang bemerkbar machten. Es wurden die neolithische Station von Butmir und eine Siedlung aus dem Eisenalter in Glasinac entdeckt. Man war auch auf anderen Gebieten tätig. Nach der Auffassung Kdllav’s sollte man der europäischen gelehrten Öffentlichkeit die in Bosnien u. d. Herzegowina erzielten Resultate vorzeigen, ihren Urteil vom Werte derselben erlangen und vor der öffentlichen Meinung die in Bosnien u. d. Herzegowina errungenen Resultate starker zum Ausdruck bringen, eine fachmännische Abschätzung ihrer Werte erzielen, lind dadurch wollte er sich noch eindrücklicher als Träger der europäischen Gesittung in einem ehemals entlegenen »WilajeU wie cs Bosnien-Herzegowina gewesen war. Um diesen Zweck zu erreichen, sollte man einen Kongress der euro- paschcn Archäologen und Anthropologen organisieren und zwar in Sarajevo als politischem und Kultur-Cent rum der Okkupationsverwallung. Laut Bes¬chluss der Landesregierung und des Ministers Kallay wurde der erste Arc¬häologenind Anthropologenkongress in Sara jevo (vom 15. bis zum 21. August des Jahres 1894.) einberufen. Am dieser gelehrten Versammlung nahmen teil auserwahlte hervorragende Gelehrte aus mehreren europäischen Landern wie Schweden, Deutschland, England, Schweiz, Frankreich, Italien und der Dop pelmenarchie. Es ist bezeichnend, dass dieser Wissenschaft liehen Versam¬mlung kein einziger Gelehrter aus den slavischen Landern beiwohnte, weder aus Russland noch aus der Habsburger-Monarchie, Im Verlaul des siebentä¬gigen Aufenthaltes in Sarajevo wurden den ausländischen Gelehrten ausneh¬mende Aufmerksamkeiten seitens des Regims erwiesen. Auch der Minister Kallay fand sich an diesen Tagen in Sarajevo ein. Den ausländischen Wissenschaftlern hielt einen Vortrag über die Be¬deutung und Entwicklung des Landesmuscums sein Direktor K. Horman und L. Thailoczy über die Kulturstufen in der Entwicklung Bosniens u. d. Herzegowina. Die erzielten Resultate wurden den Gelehrten auf dem Terrain, in Bul- nrsir und Glasinac, gezeigt. Es ist charakteristisch, dass anlässlich der Exkur¬sionen in die Ausgrabungsorte eine lebhafte wissensehaltliehe Diskussion über die Resultate geführt wurde, 2u denen man gelangt war. So kam man, tatsächlich, durch Diskussionen zu einer sicheren Abschätzung der erzielten archäologischen und anthropologischen Resultate, was die Veröffentlichung besonderer Editionen aus diesem Gebiete zur Folge hatte, wobei speziell eine prachtvoll ausgestattete Ausgabe über die neolithische Station von Butmir hervor ragte.
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The Balkans have been on the agenda of international relations and the international community in recent years. Wars and massacres have taken place in this post-Cold War region of the world, and have had a negative impact how people perceive it. Scholars often use the terms “Balkan” and “Balkanization” interchangeably to express the birth of new nations and independence in light of any number of events. Balkanization can also refer to confusion occurring in other parts of the world. We therefore must examine the Serbs, as they are one reason why the region is remembered the way it is after the Cold War, and because they had ignited the wick of the events. Serbian nationalism structurally has the potential to change regional dynamics periodically – hence the need to examine it the conceptual level. This study aims to do exactly that. In order to achieve that aim, we have drawn from various approaches and theories from [academic] literature on nationalism literature, and will thus analyse Serbian nationalism within the frameworks of religion, language, and history.
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The purpose of the article is to reveal the role of I. J. Paderewski in realization the patriotic ideas of Poland's independence through the prism of synthesis of creative and political activity. In accordance with the goal the following tasks were set: to consider the figure's biography in interaction aspect of the basic spheres of functioning; determine the personal prerequisites for national ideas formation; to reveal the practical implementation of life credo; to characterize the historical, social and cultural, artistic contribution. Methodology. In course of the research the following methods were used to reveal the presented problems: historical (study of the life story), source studies (elaboration of existing scientific works on related issues), analytical and structural-logical (coverage of the chronological aspect of the problem, understanding the specifics of activities), method of theoretical generalization (to summarize). The scientific novelty. For the first time in the history of Ukrainian scientific thought the figure of І. J. Paderewski was considered as a complex phenomenon of the interaction of human's radically different spheres of activity. Conclusions. The personality of pianists, public figures, orators, politicians, and philanthropists became a main in both the musical and political life of Poland in the late XIX - early XX century. Thanks to his incredible musical talent and rich concert practice, he brought the problem of Polish national identity to the world level and enlisted the support of the most influential circles in matters of statehood. Paderewski’s phenomenon is in his indomitable spirit, faith in the independence of his country, efficiency in all spheres of his life, in the complex unity of poetic art and prudent politics. In the European cultural heritage, this is a unique case of coexistence of contrasting human activities, their mutual functioning in achieving the existential credo of an outstanding person.
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One piece of the 1044 annual entry of the Primary Chronicle contains account about a unique event in the history of Old Rus, which historians and philologists have interpreted time and again. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise the remains («bones») of his uncles Yaropolk and Oleg the sons of Svyatoslav were dug up and baptized, and former pagan Kievan princes were honorably reburied in the Church of the Mother of God of Tithes. Though that unusual practice contradicted church canons, the prince Yaroslav’s contemporaries were most likely not fully aware of it, as not all church rules shortly after the baptism of Rus were strictly adhered to. Scholars have found Scandinavian and Icelandic parallels to that story, which allow its interpretation in the context of a dynastic cult, various manifestations of which can be observed on the barbaric periphery of Europe. Comparison of the main manuscripts of the Primary Chronicle of the Laurentian and Hypatian branches, the seniour First Novgorod Chronicle and Novgorod-Sophian group shows that the impressive 1044 year’s entry attracted the attention of medieval editors and copyists, that caused discrepancies in all versions. The article analyzes the nature of those discrepancies in the field of textual criticism. The main witnesses have their own features, while the Novgorod-Sophian group combines heterogeneous variant readings. The noteworthy addition «in Volodymer» after the name of the church in the Hypatian and Novgorod-Sophian branches «moves» events from Kiev to Vladimir-on-Klyazma or Vladimir-Volhynsky and was an obviously anachronism, for the cathedrals in both cities were built in the second half of the 12th century. It rather inserted by a post-Mongol scribe, unfamiliar with Kievan realities. The afftinity of the Hypatian and Novgorod-Sophian group in that variant reading prompts a close examination other shared similarities. Several spot-check readings founded in some entries may indicate the impact of the South Rus version on the common protograph of the Novgorod-Sophian chronicles. All the same, a number of clear borrowings from the Hypatian branch are observed only in somewhat later stratum of the compilations.
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Тhe article examines the multifaceted work of Georgi Stoykov Rakovski – one of the greatest and most significant figures of the Bulgarian Revival. Rakovski’s brightest manifestations as a poet, publicist, writer, supporter of the movement for national education, for church independence and above all – as the first ideologue and organizer of the revolutionary national liberation struggle аre revealed. The most important moments and stages of his development and growth as a professional revolutionary are traced. Rakovski’s great role in the creation of the organized national liberation movement is emphasized, as well as his influence on the next generations of Bulgarian revolutionaries. A special place is given to Rakovski’s relations with the Macedonian Bulgarians, as well as to the influence he had on the Bulgarian church-educational and revolutionary movement in Macedonia.
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After the debacle of Bulgaria in the First World War and the collapse of the ideal of national unification, tens of thousands of Macedonian Bulgarians left their native lands and settled in the Bulgarian state. They set up their own charity organizations – societies and fraternities. The publication examines the development of one of these organizations – Enidje Vardar Gumendje Charity Society. The article traces processes that developed in it under the influence of the deepening division in IMRO. The statutes of the Society, as well as that of the independent Enidje Vardar Fraternity, established after the split in 1936, are published for the first time.
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Pierdută pe undeva prin hăţişul dezinteresului mass-media, dominată tot mai insistent de mijloacele audio-vizualului, insensibilă la adevăratele valori culturale româneşti, împlinirea a 250 de ani de la naşterea marelui cărturar transilvan Gheorghe Şincai s-a transformat, prin forţa contextului, într-o sărbătoare judeţeană. Este adevărat, o sărbătoare onorată de prezenţa a numeroşi oameni de cultură din întreaga ţară, a oficialităţilor mureşene şi a numeroşi oameni simpli din zona în care s-a născut şi a crescut cărturarul. Manifestările omagiale au culminat cu Simpozionul Naţional Gheorghe Şincai - sub semnul istoriei şi a prilejuit urcarea la tribună a numeroşi specialişti în istorie şi istorie culturală. Rândurile noastre târzii, care nu au putut fi pregătite pentru momentul aniversar, apar ca un pios omagiu şi ca o încercare de a revedea, din perspectivă naţională, aspecte ale operei unui mare întemeietor de spirit românesc.
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