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Nosowski: "Może uda się Panom znaleźć porozumienie w kwestiach definicyjnych? Jakim mianem historyk może określać treść wyrażaną popularnym pojęciem „żołnierze wyklęci”?" Łabuszewski: "Moim zdaniem, najuczciwszym pojęciem dla historycznego opisu sytuacji tej grupy jest: powstanie antykomunistyczne." Wnuk: "Z tym nie zgadzam się fundamentalnie. Jeśli mamy mówić o czymś takim jak antykomunistyczne powstanie, które wybuchło w 1944 roku i trwało do roku 1963 (bo tak ono jest przecież rozciągane), to trzeba by powiedzieć, że powstanie antynazistowskie zaczęło się we wrześniu 1939 roku i trwało do stycznia 1945 roku. Bo przecież bezustannie ktoś gdzieś z karabinem po lasach chodził. Nie idźmy w takie absurdy." Łabuszewski: "W takim razie wrócę do swojego wcześniejszego twierdzenia. Dla mnie czynnikiem, który tworzy jakościowo nową sytuację, jest zamiana głównego wroga niepodległości Polski z hitlerowskich Niemiec na Rosję sowiecką. Od kwietnia 1943 roku mamy do czynienia z uruchomieniem pewnej spirali działań wrogich wymierzonych w struktury Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego, ale również w całą społeczność polską zamieszkującą tamte tereny, które uważane są za prawnie inkorporowane do Rosji Sowieckiej. […] Skala oporu zbrojnego (masowego biernego oporu); jego zdecydowana eskalacja wiosną-latem 1945 r.; decydujący wpływ obcego, wrogiego Polsce państwa na sytuację w kraju; zwalczanie przez obce formacje (NKWD, Smiersz) struktur legalnego, uznawanego nadal przez społeczność międzynarodową, rządu polskiego na emigracji – te wszystkie czynniki wyraźnie wskazują, że przynajmniej w 1945 r. możemy mówić o powstaniu antykomunistycznym jednoczącym prawie całe społeczeństwo." Wnuk: "Nie rozumiem tej logiki. Jesteśmy historykami, musimy mieć jakieś narzędzia obiektywizujące, pozwalające porównywać zjawiska. Czy każdy bunt, każda walka z okupantem jest powstaniem? Moim zdaniem, nie. Nie można przyjąć, że powstaniem jest działanie zbrojne angażujące jeden promil ludzi w kraju. Nawet jeśli przyjmiemy, że w lesie było około 20 tys. osób (a nigdy tylu ich jednocześnie nie było), to jest to mniej niż promil polskiego społeczeństwa, które liczyło wówczas 21 milionów."
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Bohaterstwo to nie tylko walka z bronią w ręku. Pokazujemy w Muzeum II Wojny Światowej bohaterstwo zwykłych ludzi, czy nawet ich przyzwoitość, co w czasach okrutnej wojny może już być heroizmem. Podam przykład Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego. Nie ma w Polsce żadnego innego muzeum, w którym PPP byłoby tak szczegółowo przedstawione. Pokazujemy je nie tylko jako działania Armii Krajowej, partyzantkę czy akcje Kedywu, ale jako wielki wysiłek kilkuset tysięcy ludzi, w ogromnej większości cywilów, którzy tworzyli konspiracyjne struktury państwowe, np. podziemne sądownictwo, szkolnictwo, parlament, prasę. To był fenomen unikatowy w Europie! Jeżeli chcemy pokazać coś niezwykłego światu, to oczywiście możemy pokazywać naszą partyzantkę. Ale o wiele potężniejsza była partyzantka sowiecka czy jugosłowiańska. Nie było natomiast nigdzie w Europie tak niezwykłego tworu, jak Polskie Państwo Podziemne! Z jednej strony było ono tworem oddolnym, powstałym w wyniku tysięcy inicjatyw społecznych, a z drugiej strony funkcjonowało jednak w ramach struktury politycznej, państwowej, z rządem, delegaturą rządu na kraj, partiami politycznymi. Było też ciałem pluralistycznym. To jest niezwykły fenomen. Swoją drogą, to jest właśnie tradycja, do której powinniśmy się dzisiaj odwoływać. Polakom obecnie najbardziej brakuje, moim zdaniem, takich postaw proobywatelskich, prowspólnotowych, a tu mamy w naszej historii takie wspaniałe doświadczenie. Czy to nie jest heroizm? Czy heroizmem jest tylko walka z bronią w ręku? A łączniczki, bez których konspiracja by nie funkcjonowała, są mniej warte, bo nie strzelały? A Rada Pomocy Żydom nie jest heroiczna? A szkolnictwo podziemne?
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The article discusses relations between the nuns of Kaunas Benedictine convent and the bishop of Vilnius diocese Kontantinas Kazimieras Bžostovskis (Konstantyn Kazimierz Brzostowski), a controversially treated personality in historiography due to his political activities. The research is based on handwritten sources and covers the period from 1687 to 1722. The article reveals the way the bishop of Vilnius diocese took care of spiritual and material issues of Benedictine nuns, discusses reforms that took place in the convent and, lastly, shows how all of that affected the life of the nuns.
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The author reflects on the role and importance of Andreas Vesalius for the new method of teaching anatomy, his attitude to Galen and galenizma extract as an idealistic theory of the great Greek physician and the reasons for his mistakes. The author does not consider attacks against Vesalius, continued until the end of his life and forced him to minimize its atomic research and publications. In the second part is given to family medical Borgaruchi – mainly Giulio, glorified as a clinician in the English court, and Prospero left the name as a professor of anatomy at Padua and clinician in the French royal court, and in Graz under Charles II of Habsburg. Attention is drawn to the criticism, but great respect Prospero to Vesalius to the discovery and publication of „Chirurgia Magna“, as well as the diverse interests in various fields of medicine and pharmacy.
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The author presents the basic contours of 1945, which was marked by the end of the war, the collapse of the Independent State of Croatia, the establishment of Federal State of Croatia as a component of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia and the seizure of authority by the Communist Party of Yugoslav (KPJ). After the end of a liberation and civil war, the KPJ took power into its hands and created the essential prerequisites for the federal reorganization of the Yugoslav state and the revolutionary change of society in compliance with its revolutionary and federalist ideas and through the application of experiences from the USSR. The emphasis is on the most important moves by the KPJ in the first year of its rule and the fate of the main anti-communist forces in Croatia.
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The paper presents the problem of violence in upbringing from a historical and contemporary perspective. The reflection is focused on the situation in Poland – both in the past and today. A lot of historical resources indicate that violence in upbringing was a common reality for children in Poland from the Middle Ages and during the following centuries. Today in Poland violence in upbringing is banned in our law and although violent behaviors towards children are less popular and not as severe as in the past, still as a way of disciplining child violence is in some forms socially accepted. The paper presents the results of the survey carried out in 2015 which is part of the monitoring which has been conducted by the Ombudsman for Children since 2011.
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This article examines how the child consumer is represented in a selection of branded picture books at the beginning of the 20th century. By analyzing children’s books published by a commercial chain of stores, the Cooperation Union, the article discusses how depictions of children as consumers are connected to the development of the emerging mass market and consumer society. The new ideas and marketing strategies expressed in these books also coincide with fundamental social changes in society, resulting from modernity and new technologies. Although the Cooperation books were designed for children and used familiar narrative techniques and motifs within children’s literature, I will argue that the books had a twofold audience. They were not only aimed at children but also at their parents. Representations of children as consumers in the studied material suggest that consumption is strongly connected to ideas of modernity and to representations of the modern child, but also that consumption is described as an inseparable part of the modern, urban experience.
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Studies on alumni periodicals before 1945 completely ignored the journals edited and published by the students of Polish seminaries. Similarly, biographies of Catholic writers or studies regarding diocesan and religious seminaries in Poland failed to take into account the rich history contained in students’ articles and chronicles, ignoring even such nationwide titles as “Przedświt” from Wrocław. The author of the present article provides information on the periodicals edited by the students of Polish seminaries before 1918.
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The purpose of this article is to answer several questions: (1) What traces of the Aromanian (Vlach) tangible cultural heritage can be found in present-day Albania, Greece, and the Republic of Macedonia?; (2) What do such traces tell us about the local community and its history and significance in European culture?; (3) Is there today any Aromanian collective memory of the places where the traces of this heritage have been found? The article describes the regions which used to be inhabited by Aromanians, presents the initial criteria for the division of their cultural heritage into groups by attributing selected examples of historical monuments to this ethnos, and also indicates the selected meanings related to Aromanian culture which we discover when treating these monuments as the text of culture. I used qualitative field research methods, including photographic documentation, interviews, and participant observations linked with the traces of this heritage in selected villages of Greece, Albania, and Republic of Macedonia. The research also focused on the secondary (historic and ethnographic) sources as well as on resources available on the Internet – I analyzed the narratives about the relevant monuments in ethnographic sources (past and contemporary memories of Aromanians) published in the new media, including on blogs and websites. The analysis is based on the comparative historical paradigm and on the interpretative paradigm, which made it possible to study the hidden cultural meanings and codes related to the Aromanian heritage. The study showed that the Balkans is home to numerous Aromanian cultural heritage artifacts with which this ethnicity researchers associates different meanings (e.g. space organization, real and symbolic places, multiculturalism and conflict).
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In the 11th century a fundamental problem arose from the independence of national councils: rulers exerted a serious influence on the convocation and course of the councils, on the promulgation of their decrees, as well as on their legal consequences in the society. Moreover, a number of councils – especially when the ruler was present at the sessions – adopted measures even in matters that belonged to the state. Good examples of such a situation in Hungary were the Council of Szabolcs (1092) and the First Council of Esztergom (1100). In the domestic practice, during the reign of King Coloman, the Second Council of Esztergom (1112) already showed us the ecclesiastical legislation as it gradually obtained independence, and also showed the acceptance of those reforms that were made under the increasing influence of the Holy See. Later on, legate Manfred actively contributed to the Third Council of Esztergom in 1169. The provisions of this council radically excluded the influence of secular power, thanks to the personal attendance of the Roman legate. The frequent presence of the papal legates – particularly in the 13th century – had a fundamental impact upon the Hungarian conciliar legislation and the ecclesiastical judicial practice, and also strengthened the papal privileges of the ecclesiastical institutions, to which many of the contemporary written documents bear witness.
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The term ‘asymmetric threats’ functions, although under slightly different meanings, in contemporary strategic, international and political studies, and defines some phenomena which are characteristic of the world in the 21st century. Anyone who wants to find contemporary phenomena in previous epochs has to be aware of a great risk. Using simple analogies is even more dangerous, because it is easy to compare the incomparable. Conscious of the danger, the author decided to take up the topic. The longer he investigated, the more convinced he was that such a contemporary phenomenon as ‘asymmetric threats’ could be – obviously mutatis mutandis – not only applicable to the reality of the 5th-century Western Roman Empire, but also recognized as one of the factors of the collapse of the state. In the presented paper, he demonstrates his argumentation and proposes an answer to the question if one can observe ‘asymmetric threats’ in Late Antiquity and if so, which of them were the most dangerous for the state, how they influenced the functioning of the Empire and how Romans tried to confront them.
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The paper considers the scale and conditions of leather trade performed by Italian representatives in the cities of the Northern Black Sea region during the 13th–14th centuries. Archaeological data on the level of craft development associated with leather preparation are provided. A new category of instruments, which has never gained scientific attention, namely, specially shaped knives for cutting leather, is introduced.
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The paper discusses the basic trends in contemporary historiographical studies regarding the so-called “crisis of history”, which took place at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The paradigmatic approach to the history of science provides the theoretical basis of research on this problem. New trends and problems that have emerged in historiography over the recent years are connected with the development of scholar and generational approaches, as well as with the study of everyday historiographical life, scholarly communications and interpersonal relationships between historians, historical consciousness, and self-representations of the academic community.
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The paper considers the problems of photography for archival science in the Russian historiography: acquisition of the archives of documentary photographs; organization of their accounting, storage, and use. Special attention is paid to the archeographic design of documentary photographs for publication.
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Theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of antiquity reception in the context of gender identity and colonial/postcolonial culture are considered in this paper. It can be assumed based on the representations existing in modern historiography that appealing to the ancient heritage as an element for the construction of “women's history” or the historical memory of postcolonial countries reflects most representatively the reception of antiquity as a sociocultural process. A hypothesis is, in its turn, postulated on the possibility of creating theoretical models generalizing and structuring the entire diversity of sociocultural experiences in the reception of antiquity.
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The analysis of Petrarch’s dialogue “De dulcedine musica” (“On the Sweetness of Music”) allowed to show that the author’s position is inconsistent: from the rejection of music and singing to the metaphor anthem for the musical harmony of the Universe. Petrarch refers with equal respect to both antique and Christian authors; his examples appeal to persons of the pagan Rome and not Christian Medieval Europe. The realities of that time, such as the widespread passion for music and singing responding to the new needs of the society, especially in urban areas, are distinguished in the judgments of this famous humanist and Renaissance poet. The dialogue addresses various ethical subjects of the Renaissance: importance of education, personal nobility despite social class frameworks, and personal right to the satisfaction of esthetic needs. Pinitian’s epigraph narrows the meanings of the dialogue and “frames” it in everyday life, thereby depriving the text of historical space. At the same time, the epigraph does not distort or modify the dialogue. However, it maximally focuses the reader’s attention on its didactic component.
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Departing from the problem of quantitative overload of social media definitions and their diverse quality I intend to examine the definitions of “social media” which have been in use since 1896. It appears that social scientists used them more than 100 years before the emergence of the internet. Contemporary attempts to define the term social media lack coherence not only because of the competences demonstrated by their authors, but also because of the lack of reflexivity on notions such as „content”, „user”, „community” or Web 2.0 and their mutual relationships within the online environment based on “user‑generated content”.
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The main periods of change in the role played by Kazan University in the formation of the educational space of Chuvashia are singled out in the paper. The specifics of each period are considered based on the example of the following educators: P.S. Kondyrev, I.Ya. Yakovlev, and S.F. Saikin.
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Since 1990 the sociologists from the University of Lodz have been conducting multidimensional analyses of poverty and social exclusion. In 1997-1999, within the framework of two projects, “The Social Cost of Economic Transformation in Central Europe - Social History of Poverty in Central Europe” and “Forms of Poverty and Social Risks and Their Spatial Distribution in Lodz,” family life histories of 3 generations of the families supported by social welfare agencies were collected. In Polish People’s Republic, the narrators from the generation named “the basic” (40-50 years old) belonged to the working class and - in a sense - represented the collectivism of socialism beneficiaries; at the moment of the research they were experiencing traumatic trajectories of unexpected impoverishment. In the paper, we are coming back to the data from 1990 and discuss biographical experiences of narrators within the context of their understanding of transition process. In the last part of the article, some results of the follow-up study conducted in 2008-2010 are presented with the notion to the macro structural conditioning of family life histories and factors decisive to the vicious circle of poverty and social exclusion.
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