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From Law to Language Use Practices – A Case Study on Hungarian-Speakers in Austria

Author(s): Hajnalka Berényi-Kiss / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

In Austria, there are two substantial Hungarian communities, namely the autochthonous minority of Burgenland and the more recent migrant groups in Vienna. Importantly, the latter have arrived in different waves and from various Hungarian-speaking regions of the Carpathian Basin, which clearly adds to the diversity of the community. In this respect, the Austrian context seems to be quite unique. Both Hungarians in Burgenland and Vienna are formally recognized minorities, yet – due to the fact that Austrian minority rights are not harmonized on various levels – the two groups do not enjoy the same level of protection, which is most dominant with regard to the mother-tongue instruction within the educational system and in the area of official language use. It is also due to these differences that the language use patterns of Hungarian-speakers in Burgenland greatly differ from those living in Vienna. It has further been argued that although the existing regulations of minority language protection in Austria are extensive, their implementation has not been achieved without shortfalls. Therefore, the aim of the present paper is to identify how regulations of minority language rights protection influence actual language use practices reported by the speakers themselves. The case study on the Hungarian-speakers in Austria was conducted within the international and interdisciplinary FP7 project ELDIA (European Language Diversity for All).1 The research, having a special focus on the legislative and institutional framework of language use and language use in practice, has shown that there are clear gaps between legal regulations and actual practices. It will be demonstrated that Hungarian-speakers have relatively little opportunity to use Hungarian in the public domains. The language use patterns reported by the informants show that the use of Hungarian is restricted mainly to the home context. Nevertheless, it will be argued that Hungarian has an exceptionally strong presence within the community for there is a clearly identifiable demand and willingness to use the Hungarian language and to develop it to the speakers’ changing needs.

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Code Switching and Code Mixing of Romanian-Hungarian Bilingual Communities in Transylvania

Author(s): Eva-Carmen Marton / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

‘Code switching and code mixing in Romanian–Hungarian bilingual communities in Transylvania,’ as the title implies, focuses on the characteristics of the speech of bilingual communities in Transylvania, specifically, the Hungarian minority. Focus is assigned to the phenomena of code mixing and code switching. Given the number of different opinions in the linguistic community on the phenomena, an all-agreed upon definition is not yet available; thus, the different points of view are discussed and analyzed based on examples. The examples given are abstracted from recorded conversations of bilingual speakers. Based on these observations, the reader of this paper should be able to construct a global image on the phenomenon of code switching and code mixing which are happening in Transylvania.

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The Linguistic Rights of the Cham Minority (Albanian) in Greece

Author(s): Hamit Xhaferi,Nerita Xhaferi,GËZIM RREDHI / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Linguistic diversity is a world heritage which needs to be valued and protected. Each linguistic community has the right to use its language as an official language in the community where it lives. The history of the legal rights of the ethnic Albanian minorities in Greece is one form of a flagrant violation of the norms of the rights of the Greek state and also its international rights. The Albanian ethnic minority should have equal rights for education in their native language and to freely practise their religion. In Attica, Beotia, Arta, in the regions of Chameria (Ancient Thesprotia), Preveza, Arta, Ioannina and in the regions of Konitsa, Kastoria and Florina – taking into consideration the number of the population living in various Greek cities –, the number of orthodox Chams (Albanians) exceeds 500 thousand. However, Greece denies their existence in these regions. Arvanites in Greece do not have the right to use the Albanian alphabet (Latin) and they do not have Albanian schools or Albanian books. If Albanian language is spoken, it is spoken only inside the family. The Greek authorities, amongst other things, state that: ‘we don’t see it necessary that Albanians and other minorities should learn their languages, because the languages that they speak are not languages!’ The Albanian language has continuously been despised and ill-treated. The situation with the education in Chameria and in all the regions where Chams live is miserable. In Chameria today, you cannot find a single school in their mother tongue. Greece has always thought that opening new Albanian schools in Chameria will be a big betrayal of the Hellenic state and Christianity. Unlike Albania and Italy, which have opened many schools for the Greek minority in Albania and for the Arbëreshë in Italy, Greece has done the opposite by ending and sanctioning the Cham’s efforts for education in Albanian language.

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Language Rights of the Turkish Minority in Kosovo

Author(s): Fahri Türk,Sencar Karamucho / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

In the era of Ex-Yugoslavia, the Turks of Kosovo established their own political institutions such as Doğru Yol Derneği (Association of True Path) in 1951 in Prizren. As the Turks gained their political, cultural and educational rights, the Yugoslav Government amended the constitution of the state in 1974, which paved the way to introduce a new Language Rights charter for all the minorities within the Republic. The 1974 Amendment made Turkish an official language besides Albanian and Serbian languages in the autonomous republic of Kosovo. Following this development, a Language Rights charter came in 1977, which guaranteed the use of Turkish language in the local administrations. Through the realization of this amendment, the Turks in Kosovo got the right to use their native language in public places and received identity cards in Turkish. As the Albanian people of Kosovo started to fight for their independence from Serbia, Slobodan Milosevic started a serbifying policy in the autonomous region of Kosovo that led to banning the Turkish language in public places as well as in the educational sphere. In the post-cold war era, the Turks of Kosovo established the Association of Turkish Democrats (Türk Demokrat Birliği) that tried to protect the rights of Turks in Kosovo in the fields of education, culture and language. The Association of Turkish Democrats became a political party in the first half of 2000 and is called Democratic Turkish Party of Kosovo (Kosova Demokratik Türk Partisi). The Constitutional Framework for Republic of Kosovo came into force in 2001, but it could not restore the language rights of the Turks in Kosovo, which they had gained through the 1974 Amendment. The Turks of Kosovo could not regain their language rights within the new language law of 2006, which allowed the use of Turkish only in the District of Municipality of Prizren. This study will clarify the conditions under which the Turkish language has lost its official language status. The attitudes of the Turkish elites and the Turkish people of Kosovo towards the loss of their language will be explored with the help of the interview method. In this context, it is very important to explain what role the Democratic Turkish Party of Kosovo and The Turkish Government in Ankara played in losing the language rights of the Turkish minority in Kosovo.

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Assessing Minority Language Rights in Kosovo

Author(s): Andrea Najvirtova,Lars Burema / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Minority language rights are central to minority–majority relations in Kosovo. However, it is an extremely sensitive and complicated issue, considering the recent conflict in 1999 and the continuing tensions between ethnic communities. The paper will provide an overview of Kosovo’s current institutional and legislative framework for the protection and promotion of minority language rights, including an analysis of the historical developments that led to its creation. Subsequently, the paper will examine the situation on the ground and look at how and to what extent this framework is put into practice, focusing on three key areas: the use of language in education, in public and private, and in relation with governmental institutions. Following this analysis, the paper will consider what factors are obstructing or enhancing the enjoyment of minority language rights in Kosovo. In the analysis, the paper will pay particular attention to the discrepancy between the ambitious legislation and the capacities and willingness of Kosovo institutions to ensure its implementation. It will stress that the geographic concentration of minority communities in Kosovo plays an important part in enabling minority communities to function effectively in their native language in the areas where they live. However, outside of these areas, the implementation of language rights put forth by Kosovo’s legal framework is much more limited. Finally, the paper will conclude with recommendations on measures to ensure the effective enjoyment of language rights in Kosovo.

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Minority Language Rights in Europe: from the Austro–Hungarian Monarchy to the Supranational Organizations

Author(s): László Marácz / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The European language landscape is traditionally characterized by linguistic diversity. In historic and contemporary Europe, the establishment of state structures has caused the creation of all sorts of national and ethnic minorities. It has been observed that their linguistic rights have been represented satisfactorily in the modern period if within the framework of the Empire or State a concessive policy towards linguistic diversity existed, i.e. a policy allowing the inclusion of minority languages. Hence, there is a strong correlation between the granting of minority language rights by the State and a policy accommodating linguistic diversity by the same State. From this it follows that minority language rights are to be studied as a sub-case of a more general policy including linguistic diversity. Note, however, that even in a hierarchy of languages minority languages might be at the bottom remaining without official rights. So, the recognition of linguistic diversity is a necessary condition for minority language rights but not a sufficient one.In this paper, we will study this correlation between minority language rights and multilingual policy in the European context. In fact, two types of state structures come to mind for deeper investigation. Firstly, the multilingual federal states, those that go beyond the monolingual nation-state dominating the paradigm of the twentieth century, starting with the late Hapsburg Empire but including federal enterprises, such as former Yugoslavia and Switzerland. Secondly, the supranational organizations of states that came into being with the League of Nations after the First World War. Here, we will restrict ourselves to a discussion of minority language rights within the framework of the contemporary supranational organizations in Europe, namely the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE) and the Organization for Co-operation and Security in Europe (OCSE). Comparing and analyzing the minority language rights’ regimes in both types of state structures will allow us to receive more insight into the contents, conditions, boundaries and historical developments of minority language rights in Europe.

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To Be or Not to Be (A Minority)? The Case of the Kashubians in Poland

Author(s): Michael Hornsby,Tomasz Wicherkiewicz / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

When Poland signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages on 12 February 2009, out of the fifteen languages listed all but one were categorised as minority languages. Kashubian was (apparently) the only regional language. Of course, the original wording of the Charter, when it was first drawn up in 1992, did not specify what the difference between a minority and a regional language actually was (Woerhrling 2005: 54). Thus Poland’s ratification, while totally complying with the Charter’s original wording, is nevertheless controversial in its application of the Charter’s principles. In this paper, we aim at exploring the tensions that have been created by the implementation of the Charter in Poland. The most obvious point of friction concerns the singling out of the Kashubian to the detriment of other less widely-used languages; this will be discussed in the context of one presenter’s expert knowledge and close association with the Charter’s implementation in Poland. Less obvious, but equally important, is the identification of the conflicting language ideologies at play here. If all minority languages in Poland (apart from Kashubian) are located within the confines of a ‘language-and-identity’ ideology, then locating Kashubian within a framework of territoriality (or a ‘language-andterritory’ ideology [Myhill 1999]) is not only bound to lead to a clash of counterproductive ideologies, but it also seems anachronistic at a time in the history of Kashubian when in only three districts of the traditional Kashubian-speaking area (Mordawski 2005: 56; Nestor and Hickey 2009) it is spoken regularly by more than 50% of the population. Given these conditions, we address the question of the effectiveness of such language planning for Kashubian in the final section of our paper.

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Language Policies in Central and East European States with Hungarian Minorities: Implications for Linguistic Rights Protection of National Minorities in the EU

Author(s): László Marácz / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Due to the peace-treaties of the twentieth century, Hungarian minorities live in seven different Central and East European states, including Slovakia (520,000), Ukraine (200,000), Romania (1,930,000), Serbia (400,000), Croatia (30,000), Slovenia (20,000), and Austria (5,000). In agreement with Central and East European tradition, the most important feature of ethnic identity is the mother tongue. Hence, these states are de facto multilingual states, although not all of them consider themselves de jure as such, but rather as monolingual nation-states. In the latter cases, Hungarian minorities are confronted with a ‘policy of exclusion’, that is discriminating language laws restricting the use of the Hungarian language in the official and public space. This leads to polarised, divided societies along the lines of ethno-linguistic cleavages. This paper compares exclusive and inclusive language policies in multilingual Central and Eastern European states with Hungarian minorities. We will investigate the legal system in these countries concerning the status and use of the languages of national minorities. It will be concluded that the position of the Hungarian language in the countries concerned can be classified into two groups: (1) Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Austria; (2) Slovakia, Romania, and Ukraine. In the first group, the minority language has a legal status equal to the language of the majority and is included into the official domains. This is especially true for Serbia’s Vojvodina region where an official policy supporting multilingual, multicultural society is pursued. In the second group, minority languages are subordinated to the official state language, they are restricted in the official domains, and additional requirements and conditions determine their use. Hence, the second case does not match the EU’s democratic standards whereas the first case respects these standards. This grouping is interesting as all the countries involved are subject to the process of Europeanisation. All seven countries mentioned above are members of the Council of Europe (CoE), they have ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, and foremost, four countries, Austria, Slovenia, Romania, and Slovakia are members of the Union. Two of these countries, Romania and Slovakia are however not in the group where democratic values and standards are satisfactory. Hence it follows that the membership of the Union is not a guarantee for the protection of the linguistic rights of national minorities. Thus, we can observe a discrepancy between the theory of the Union celebrating linguistic diversity and democratic values and the practice in the Member States. It turns out that there are no effective controlling and sanctioning mechanisms in the Union available when the linguistic rights of national minorities are violated and multilingual practice is banned from the public and official space. The state of affairs in the second group is not only violating human rights but it undermines the cohesion of the Union and affects the deepening of conflicts between the states with Hungarian minorities and the kin-state of Hungary (see Brubaker et. al. 2006, Csergő 2007). This implies that we have to reconsider the controlling and sanctioning mechanisms in the legal framework of the Union. An important step forward would be the adoption of the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention and the Language Charter as a benchmarking system by the Union, as well as the integration of these into the Union legal system. This would allow sanctions against states violating them.

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Специфика на клиничните термини, възникнали чрез метафоризация на митологична и литературна образност

Author(s): Nadezhda Amudzhieva / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

Based on Old Greek and Latin, clinical terminology has been developing for thousands of years, which has led to imagery infiltrations in term names from different eras. Clinical terms, formed through metaphorization, are distinguished according to various criteria: method of formation, scope of the metaphor, detectability of the metaphor, type of the lexical units, used for secondary nomination. Different types of terms have a different mechanism of metaphoric transferal, as well as presence and strength of the metaphor. This study focuses on eponymous metaphors, constructed on the basis of mythological and literary imagery, combining two methods of nomination – eponymous and metaphoric. This study identifies the two main types of terms in this group – mythological eponymous metaphors and literary eponymous metaphors. We discuss the similarities and differences between metaphors and eponymous metaphors, on the one hand, and between ordinary eponyms and mythological or literary eponyms, on the other. The different ways of constructing the mythological and literary eponymous terms are examined and their specific mechanism of metaphorical transferal is explored. The methods of creating the outer form of the terms are established – either by an eponymous construction or by means of adding affixes. A distinction is also made on the basis of their inner form, which defines them as metaphors with obvious imagery and metaphors with hidden imagery. The study of the metaphorically formed terms in medical and, in particular, in clinical terminology has an informative, cognitive, and didactic meaning in the general discourse of the academic medical education.

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Непреходни глаголи с придобита транзитивност в новогръцкия език

Author(s): Rumen Rikevski / Language(s): English,Bulgarian,Greek, Modern (1453-) Publication Year: 0

In Modern Greek language, the verbs function extremely flexibly in terms of transitivity / intransitivity. In conversational speech, Greeks often violate syntactic norms, and many intransitive verbs change their character and become transitive.

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Преводът на исторически реалии от гръцки език

Author(s): Dimitrios Roumpos / Language(s): English,Bulgarian,Greek, Modern (1453-) Publication Year: 0

The article covers issues in translating historical culture specifics from the Greek language. Translatability of such a specific lexical unit is admissible in principle, as long as the national and historical cultural colour is preserved in accordance with the artistic experience of the target environment and with the particular social and cultural context, provided that there is no excessive transcribing or providing of numerous explanations of the culture specifics in the fiction translation. The article places emphasis on the fact that solution should be sought on a case-bycase basis, in accordance with the choices, made by the translator, their skills, attitude and the linguistic tradition.

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Японската глаголна форма "Та" – свършен вид или минало време (значения)

Author(s): Militsa Mineva / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

The paper deals with the meanings of the Japanese TA verb form, according to the research of some leading linguists. The TA-form is viewed in aspectual and temporal opposition with the non-past U/RUform, as well as in aspectual opposition with the progressive TE+IRUform and the past progressive TE+ITA- form.The paper deals with the meanings of the Japanese TA verb form, according to the research of some leading linguists. The TA-form is viewed in aspectual and temporal opposition with the non-past U/RUform, as well as in aspectual opposition with the progressive TE+IRUform and the past progressive TE+ITA- form.

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Интеркултурна компетентност в обучението по японски език в Япония

Author(s): Magdalena Vasileva / Language(s): English,Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

The paper sheds light on some contemporary methodologies of teaching Japanese as a second language at Japanese universities from the point of view of intercultural competence. In linguistics the terms intercultural and cross-cultural are often used synonymously, but we make a certain distinction between them. While crosscultural supposes a kind of meeting between different cultures without any special interferences, intercultural evokes an association of a „crash“ between different systems of values while trying to accept the „otherness“ and it also implies a process of retrospection of one’s own system of values. On the other hand, the development and cultivation of intercultural competence is a long and many sided process concerned both: 1) with the foreign language and culture, that are to be mastered and 2) with one’s own language and culture, too. Many of the practices described in the paper stress on two points that are important for the development of intercultural competence: 1) teaching language and culture as a whole and inseparable unit and 2) providing the proper medium for a communication at an individual level.

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Anthroponymie chez Mohamed Nedali : du contact des langues aux contrastes sociaux

Author(s): Oussama Amrani / Language(s): French Publication Year: 0

Mohamed Nedali is a contemporary Moroccan writer of French expression born in 1962 in Tahannaout, about thirty kilometers from Marrakech where he still lives. Having written eight novels with a realist vocation, he makes his region his favorite place and fiction because, as he says in an interview, “in literature one only speaks very well of a place one knows so well”. However, this attachment to space, or at least this rootedness in identity that demonstrate the territorial anchoring of the author, seems insufficient to serve his realistic vision. It is nevertheless true that the intrusion of vernacular languages in a text written in a foreign language is not without importance because it constitutes a significant element in a realistic fresco. Indeed, the text of Nedali is strewn with Moroccan expressions. This intrusion is not gratuitous and illustrates the role that the contact of languages can have in a fictional narrative. Moreover, the choice of anthroponyms in Nedali’s fiction is not arbitrary, as it is thoughtful and serves the author’s vision. Being a writer of soil and a good connoisseur of the Moroccan society, the author uses it to create a fresco whose contrasts illustrate his bias and his refusal of social evils.

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Kontrasty w przekładzie: porównanie polskich tłumaczeń Obcego Alberta Camus

Author(s): Tomasz Zielnik / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

In 2021, the State Publishing Institute (Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy) published a new edition of The Stranger translated by Marek Bieńczyk. This is the second translation officially published in Poland, the previous was created by Maria Zenowicz in 1958. The article analyses these two Polish translations of The Stranger. The author compares some parts of the text and shows differences between Polish versions trying to find out how a new translation has changed a perception of the novel among Polish readers.

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Kontrasty między Polakami a Ukraińcami w Warszawie – analiza korpusowa przekazów medialnych Gazety Wyborczej w latach 2015-2019

Author(s): Anna Skibińska / Language(s): Polish Publication Year: 0

The article presents a corpus analysis of media messages about immigrants from Ukraine in Warsaw. The aim of the research was to compare headlines and texts and to identify keywords, words with the highest frequency and the most popular collocations. The korpusomat web application was used for the study. The results confirm that the image of Ukrainians is built on the basis of the opposition between locals and foreigners. The quantitative data for the headlines and for the texts were similar. The topics concerned mainly the work of immigrants. An important role in the media news was played by lemmas locating the places of events and the nationality of their participants.

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Les contrastes dans le Mirouer des femmes vertueuses

Author(s): Paulina Materka / Language(s): French Publication Year: 0

Our article is focused on the contrasts in the Mirouer des femmes vertueuses, an anonymous collection of two stories: one about Joan of Arc and the other about Griselidis. We compare opposing aspects of these characters. Firstly, we counterpose the discursive character of the heroines, where one is real and the other is fictional. Then we study different qualities, the two models of femininity and finally the behaviour of the character in question in the face of events.

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Les contrastes dans le roman populaire à l’exemple des Trois mousquetaires et du Comte de Monte-Cristo d’Alexandre Dumas

Author(s): Weronika Lesiak / Language(s): French Publication Year: 0

The aim of this article is to take a closer look at the nature of popular fiction and its inherent usage of contrasting elements. We would like to examine two Alexander Dumas’ novels, The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo in order to try to explain the aforementioned tendency as well as give examples illustrating it. In the first part of the text, we concentrate on premises of the genre in general. Having established those principles, we go on to analyse The Three Musketeers in the context of its contrasting features. We can divide this novel into three basic sets of oppositions: that between the cardinal and the queen, that between titular characters, accompanied by d’Artagnan, and finally that between main female characters, Constance and Milady. After the analysis of the first of the novels, we then proceed to study The Count of Monte-Cristo. We draw attention to its most distinctive contrasts which include, amongst others, the opposition between the protagonist’s two incarnations: Edmond Dantès and the count of Monte-Cristo. All in all, both novels rep-resent well the tendency to use contrasts as a means of characterization. The popular fiction’ structure which presupposes that the good must be victorious and the bad punished fits well with the utilisation of oppositions.

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La multiplicité des contrastes dans la nouvelle « La Parure » de Guy de Maupassant

Author(s): Emilia Antkiewicz / Language(s): French Publication Year: 0

The article is based on the notion of contrast and its role in creating a detailed and nuanced narration with psychologically complex heroes. Contrasts in question include those between poverty and richness, dreams and reality and being and pretending to be. The reflexion is enriched with a theatrical twist by questions concerning the role (or even hypothetical presence) of hybris in the process of creating an intricate composition and the possibility of a tragedy-like reading and interpretation of the short story.

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La symbolique des femmes aquatiques dans la poésie française 1890-1899 : pureté vs volupté

Author(s): Eliza Sasin / Language(s): French Publication Year: 0

Water with its entire seascape, which includes both flora and fauna as well as figures from the mythological world, is one of the main elements of the poetic imagination that forms in the Symbolism. By analysing poems written in the years 1890-99 in the light of the thought of philosophers and mythocritics like Bachelard or Pierrot, we can notice a strong relationship between aquatic symbols and female characters. Focusing on mermaids, nymphs and Aphrodite, we can see that the poetic impressions are created on the basis of a contrast between purity and voluptuousness, which result from the features of the water, the archetypal features of the characters and attributes which are assigned to them during the poetic creation, and that their combination allowed the authors to develop poetic images nuanced and aestheticized relative to the original stories.

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