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Nosowski: "Może uda się Panom znaleźć porozumienie w kwestiach definicyjnych? Jakim mianem historyk może określać treść wyrażaną popularnym pojęciem „żołnierze wyklęci”?" Łabuszewski: "Moim zdaniem, najuczciwszym pojęciem dla historycznego opisu sytuacji tej grupy jest: powstanie antykomunistyczne." Wnuk: "Z tym nie zgadzam się fundamentalnie. Jeśli mamy mówić o czymś takim jak antykomunistyczne powstanie, które wybuchło w 1944 roku i trwało do roku 1963 (bo tak ono jest przecież rozciągane), to trzeba by powiedzieć, że powstanie antynazistowskie zaczęło się we wrześniu 1939 roku i trwało do stycznia 1945 roku. Bo przecież bezustannie ktoś gdzieś z karabinem po lasach chodził. Nie idźmy w takie absurdy." Łabuszewski: "W takim razie wrócę do swojego wcześniejszego twierdzenia. Dla mnie czynnikiem, który tworzy jakościowo nową sytuację, jest zamiana głównego wroga niepodległości Polski z hitlerowskich Niemiec na Rosję sowiecką. Od kwietnia 1943 roku mamy do czynienia z uruchomieniem pewnej spirali działań wrogich wymierzonych w struktury Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego, ale również w całą społeczność polską zamieszkującą tamte tereny, które uważane są za prawnie inkorporowane do Rosji Sowieckiej. […] Skala oporu zbrojnego (masowego biernego oporu); jego zdecydowana eskalacja wiosną-latem 1945 r.; decydujący wpływ obcego, wrogiego Polsce państwa na sytuację w kraju; zwalczanie przez obce formacje (NKWD, Smiersz) struktur legalnego, uznawanego nadal przez społeczność międzynarodową, rządu polskiego na emigracji – te wszystkie czynniki wyraźnie wskazują, że przynajmniej w 1945 r. możemy mówić o powstaniu antykomunistycznym jednoczącym prawie całe społeczeństwo." Wnuk: "Nie rozumiem tej logiki. Jesteśmy historykami, musimy mieć jakieś narzędzia obiektywizujące, pozwalające porównywać zjawiska. Czy każdy bunt, każda walka z okupantem jest powstaniem? Moim zdaniem, nie. Nie można przyjąć, że powstaniem jest działanie zbrojne angażujące jeden promil ludzi w kraju. Nawet jeśli przyjmiemy, że w lesie było około 20 tys. osób (a nigdy tylu ich jednocześnie nie było), to jest to mniej niż promil polskiego społeczeństwa, które liczyło wówczas 21 milionów."
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Bohaterstwo to nie tylko walka z bronią w ręku. Pokazujemy w Muzeum II Wojny Światowej bohaterstwo zwykłych ludzi, czy nawet ich przyzwoitość, co w czasach okrutnej wojny może już być heroizmem. Podam przykład Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego. Nie ma w Polsce żadnego innego muzeum, w którym PPP byłoby tak szczegółowo przedstawione. Pokazujemy je nie tylko jako działania Armii Krajowej, partyzantkę czy akcje Kedywu, ale jako wielki wysiłek kilkuset tysięcy ludzi, w ogromnej większości cywilów, którzy tworzyli konspiracyjne struktury państwowe, np. podziemne sądownictwo, szkolnictwo, parlament, prasę. To był fenomen unikatowy w Europie! Jeżeli chcemy pokazać coś niezwykłego światu, to oczywiście możemy pokazywać naszą partyzantkę. Ale o wiele potężniejsza była partyzantka sowiecka czy jugosłowiańska. Nie było natomiast nigdzie w Europie tak niezwykłego tworu, jak Polskie Państwo Podziemne! Z jednej strony było ono tworem oddolnym, powstałym w wyniku tysięcy inicjatyw społecznych, a z drugiej strony funkcjonowało jednak w ramach struktury politycznej, państwowej, z rządem, delegaturą rządu na kraj, partiami politycznymi. Było też ciałem pluralistycznym. To jest niezwykły fenomen. Swoją drogą, to jest właśnie tradycja, do której powinniśmy się dzisiaj odwoływać. Polakom obecnie najbardziej brakuje, moim zdaniem, takich postaw proobywatelskich, prowspólnotowych, a tu mamy w naszej historii takie wspaniałe doświadczenie. Czy to nie jest heroizm? Czy heroizmem jest tylko walka z bronią w ręku? A łączniczki, bez których konspiracja by nie funkcjonowała, są mniej warte, bo nie strzelały? A Rada Pomocy Żydom nie jest heroiczna? A szkolnictwo podziemne?
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Dzieje powojennej Polski w wersji PiS-owskiej to historia, w której występują tylko dwie barwy: biel i czerń. Są tylko dobrzy i źli, bohaterowie i zdrajcy. Wzorcowym bohaterem był ten, kto walczył z komunistami z bronią w ręku i zginął lub został stracony czy zamęczony w katowniach UB. Jest wzorowy – gdyż nie miał już okazji podjęcia próby dostosowania się do narzuconej krajowi rzeczywistości. Poza wszelką dyskusją jest fakt, że ofiary komunistycznego terroru zasługują na cześć i pamięć. Współcześnie żyjący Polacy potrzebują jednak rzetelnej wiedzy o powojennych czasach. Powinni wiedzieć, że była to przede wszystkim historia łamania przez totalitarny system polskiego społeczeństwa i woli przetrwania tego społeczeństwa wbrew tragicznym okolicznościom. Jest to także często historia ludzi, którzy w ciągu swego życia kolejno: dokonywali bohaterskich czynów w czasie wojny, szli na kompromisy, osaczeni przez totalitarny system; nawet upadali, ale znowu podnosili się, a potem zdobywali się na przeciwstawienie się systemowi. Tę prawdę w sposób mistrzowski pokazuje m.in. Andrzej Friszke w książce Między wojną a więzieniem. Młoda inteligencja katolicka 1945-1953 (Biblioteka „Więzi” 2015). Powstanie „Solidarności” i jej historię PiS oczywiście zalicza do historii polskiej chwały. Uwypukla jednak przede wszystkim bohaterstwo zwykłych ludzi. Lech Wałęsa, przywódca „Solidarności”, został sprowadzony do roli „Bolka”, agenta SB. Propagandyści PiS-owscy wyraźnie nie lubią także jego najbliższych doradców i strategów Związku: Tadeusza Mazowieckiego i Bronisława Geremka, a także bohaterów solidarnościowego podziemia: Władysława Frasyniuka, Bogdana Borusewicza, Zbigniewa Bujaka i Bogdana Lisa. Dlaczego?
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The paper presents the problem of violence in upbringing from a historical and contemporary perspective. The reflection is focused on the situation in Poland – both in the past and today. A lot of historical resources indicate that violence in upbringing was a common reality for children in Poland from the Middle Ages and during the following centuries. Today in Poland violence in upbringing is banned in our law and although violent behaviors towards children are less popular and not as severe as in the past, still as a way of disciplining child violence is in some forms socially accepted. The paper presents the results of the survey carried out in 2015 which is part of the monitoring which has been conducted by the Ombudsman for Children since 2011.
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Nursing profession requires high moral, physical and psychological strength. It is a specific profession linked with constant battle and fight for the human life, even for one minute. The age of this profession is the same like that of the Medicine – it means the beginning of the mankind. Aim: To examine the history of nursing in Shumen region using different documental sources from the Shumen hospital, Bulgarian Red Cross and literature. Methods: Historical and documental methods. Results: Today`s nursing is a modern, organized, socially significant and respected profession. It develops every minute to respond adequately to patient needs. To assess better any profession we need to follow its history of development. An inquiry of the development of the profession was made from Samaritans period till now days. Along with that we investigate the role of the nurse specialist in different settings – hospital and outpatient services. Historical review of the functioning of the Medical School is provided right from the beginning in 1950, today named Shumen Affiliate of Medical University of Varna. Conclusions: The development of Nursing in Shumen demonstrates its impact and sustainability also in the new education history of medical specialists in Shumen and also for master students in the „Healthcare Management“ program of the university.
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The annexation of the Kardzhali region to Bulgaria after the Balkan War in 1912 was the basic reason for the region’s belated social and economic development, with a negative influence on communal health. Until that historic moment, the local population lived in extremely miserable conditions and rudimentary hygiene, treated by self-proclaimed imam healers, Turkish doctors, and quacks. Diseases were widely spread, a large part of the population died out of spotted fever, malaria, and tuberculosis. Famine, the unhygienic conditions of life and work in the tobacco warehouses, the swarming thousands of refugees coming from White Sea Thrace, were important reasons for the spreading of tuberculosis which afflicted the majority of the region’s active young generation. The world economic crisis of 1928 further aggravated that communal health problem. Tuberculosis was given a special prominence was in the new Law of Public Health passed in 1929. An important role in the struggle against it was regionally played by the newly-opened, in 1932, hospital in Kardzhali and also the pavilion for consumptives, opened in 1940. After September 9th, 1944, fighting tuberculosis becomes more systematic and purposeful. In 1953, the requirements for executing Decree #699 and Ministerial Order #798 were adopted, containing a complex of measures towards overcoming the ailment. Despite opening a network of specialized establishments – hospitals, consulting offices and dispensaries, the diseases continued to spread, although at a far slower rate, mainly among the village populace prevailing in the Kardzhali region. Only in the period 1985–1990 was there a levelling between the data on the ailment’s spread in the region and the data on its spread in the country. Although much less active now, we still cannot think tuberculosis has been defeated in the Kardzhali region. Unfortunately, at the beginning of the 21st century the ancient conditions for the ailment’s spread are being resuscitated: a poor rustic population with a low health culture, unemployment, uniform and inadequate meals, a deteriorated general living standard.
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The World War II has left an emotional wound, and its direct victims as well as new generations have to cope with it. The main subject of my presentation will be an analysis of methods for presenting World War II history in against the background of a theory of memory and post memory of war’s trauma through the example of picture books which were published in Poland during the first two decades of the XXI century. I would like to discuss the main trends in presenting the issues pertaining to the war. The transcription of the Second World War memory into picture books is especially interesting for me as a historian of art. I analyze the artistic styles adapted by the artists to express difficult topics, such as the holocaust, the horror of concentrations camps, hunger, fear, loss of family, death. Composition, artistic techniques, color, vocabulary, typography – these are the tools in the hands of artists through which they can not only tell the story, but also stir up emotions and shape the personality. The picture book, like other types of art, operates through the language of fiction to tell the truth. Art is one of the languages of historical narration.
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Reconstruction practices are one of the most popular legitimacy strategies, used in process of making cultural heritage. Customers treat them with a great esteem, and they are expected to bring to reconstructed elements desired importance of authenticity. A contemporary ethnographer/anthropologist is usually diffident when facing such practices, and he focuses on critical description and deconstruction of the practices. But what can he do when local activists ask him to actively participate in the experiment as a so-called expert, whose task is e.g. to reconstruct local folk dress? Of course, his or her decision will depend primarily on research interests and chosen specialization, but the most important issue will be his or her understanding of the ethnographer/anthropologist profession. Thus, some researchers would be sceptic and refuse any assistance, and thereby avoid criticism of their own professional environment, accusing them of mythologization, reification, being peasantry-lover etc. Others will take on the role of full-time experts, who would join different types of bodies and committees, and decide what is and what is not proper in the spectacle they would observe, thus becoming the guardians of the regime of truth folklore. The third strategy, which in my opinion can help to break the deadlock described above, is the participation in the project considered as an open dialogue. Thereby we can try to avoid being an authoritarian arbiter and we can become a real consultant, a person who – according to the Latin root consultare – discusses with partners (creators of a project) the results of the reconstruction as deeply as possible. When working on the reconstruction of dresses, ethnographer/anthropologist can show their complexity, place them in a local context as well as in wider social, cultural and historical context, and avoid narrow and problematic definitions of folk costume. The decision concerning the final form of representation – an album, a staging or a dance etc. – however, should be made by our partners, equipped with not only a solid dose of knowledge, but also with important sensitivity to various epistemological issues behind the process of reconstruction.
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In historiography, there is an ongoing discussion about the actual range of power of three emperors of the Empire of Japan: Meiji, Taishō and Shōwa (known as Hirohito). The 1889–1945 Constitution formally granted them huge prerogatives. While some historians regard that as fiction, others are ready to treat the three monarchs – and especially Emperor Shōwa – as true dictators. The fragmentary sources suggest that Emperor Meiji had a genuine share in ruling. He served as an arbitrator between the government, the army and the genrō – an unofficial council of “honorable statesmen,” who had the last word. It was possible thanks to the huge personal respect he enjoyed. As a result of his son Emperor Taishō’s illness and dying out of the genrō, the military prerogatives were taken over by the general staffs of the army and navy, formally dependent solely on the ruler. They were counterbalanced by the last living genrō, Prince Saionji, who died in 1940.
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The Boer War seems to be a classic example of an asymmetric conflict, mainly because of the difference in the potential of the two sides. It is worth considering, however, if it can really be classified as such. If we thoroughly analyze the events and development of the conflict, especially its first stage, it will turn out that it is hard to speak of an asymmetric conflict in this case. The Boer War adopted characteristics of an asymmetric conflict with time, with its peak in the autumn of 1900, when the Boers finally started using typical guerilla tactics.
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The term ‘asymmetric conflict’ is mainly used with reference to modern times to describe a conflict of two enemies whose resources differ significantly. However, it seems justifiable to use this term also to refer to confrontations which took place in the past. That is why an analysis was made of the Third Anglo-Afghan war as an example of an asymmetric conflict. At first sight it would seem that what we have here is a typical clash between a weaker opponent and a much more powerful one. However, a more in-depth analysis of the characteristics of this conflict in the context of asymmetry questions the simplified assertion that the Third Anglo-Afghan War was this kind of confrontation.
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The Chinese Civil War of 1946–1949 is treated as a typical example of an asymmetric war. The peasant guerilla, led by the Communists, weakly armed but fuelled by the hope for the division of landowners’ lands, was to defeat the regular army of Kuomintang (KMT), fully armed by the USA. The Nationalists were to be constantly supported by Washington. The Communists were to act alone. However, in light of the sources this image cannot be maintained. In fact, the war in China was a conventional conflict between two armies of comparable size. Both of them were formed as a result of compulsory draft. Both had been equipped with the help of an outside ally. However, the support of the USA for the KMT was all the time limited, and in the decisive period of 1946–1947 Washington put an embargo on the sale of weapons to China. It hit the KMT only, as the Communists were all the time supplied by Moscow, mainly from the Japanese stockpiles won in Manchuria. The agrarian question influenced the conflict in a negligible way, whereas the Communist secret service deeply penetrated the enemy’s command. It is not true that soldiers and officers of the KMT (apart from the mentioned agents) en masse went over to the Communist side. The fate of China was decided not by the political sympathies of the citizens, but by the results of battles.
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The paper discusses the basic trends in contemporary historiographical studies regarding the so-called “crisis of history”, which took place at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The paradigmatic approach to the history of science provides the theoretical basis of research on this problem. New trends and problems that have emerged in historiography over the recent years are connected with the development of scholar and generational approaches, as well as with the study of everyday historiographical life, scholarly communications and interpersonal relationships between historians, historical consciousness, and self-representations of the academic community.
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The paper is devoted to “Dialogues about Authority” written by Carl Schmitt, the outstanding German lawyer, politician, and thinker of the 20th century. This work is still increasingly relevant. Modern researchers in the sphere of law, philosophy, and political science often refer to the creative heritage of Carl Schmitt, considering him “today’s Macchiavelli”. We made an attempt to analyze and translate Carl Schmitt’s “Dialogues about Authority” from the Italian language, into which it was transferred by Pierangelo Schiera (Trento, Italy), a Carl Schmitt’s colleague and professor of law.
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Modern Russian civil law is being influenced by the foreign legal experience. This is because of the relative youth of modern Russian law, which has its roots in the early 1990s. Numerous foreign legal constructions were fixed in Russian legislation without due adaptation to the legal traditions of Russia. The paper considers criteria for the appropriateness of borrowings from the foreign legal experience. The conclusion is made about the necessity to use the foreign legal experience in accordance with the Russian legal traditions established in the 19th–20th centuries in order to preserve the originality of national law.
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In the article the genesis of illegal Jewish emigration from the Second Polish Republic to the USA in 1918–29 is examined in terms of the so-called pushing-and-attracting-migratory-movement factors. The bad economic situation of the Jewish population in Poland and the antisemitism – constantly rising in the country due to political events – meant that for many Jews an overseas trip became the only chance for improvement of the life. Yet, trips planed by Polish Jews were curbed by emigration requirements securing the interest of the reborn Polish state. The attempts to circumvent these restrictions contributed to the first cases of illegal entering the United States through Cuba, Mexico or Canada. After the introduction of statutory emigration restrictions in the United States in 1921 and 1924, Polish Jews travelled more frequently to the countries adjacent to the US, which still remained their final destination. The descriptions of the fate of Polish Jews on emigration that were included in this article are among the most dramatic episodes in the history of overseas emigration from Poland in the interwar period.
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In Poland there has been very little research on Japanese Canadians and their experience of incarceration during the Second World War. Therefore, this paper intends to fill in this gap. In particular, the article aims to examine the reaction of the Canadian government and society towards the Japanese Canadians in the face of the Pacific War. The paper also offers a review of the situation of the Japanese Canadian community in the pre-war Canada and describes the events that preceded and influenced the decision of the federal government to remove the Japanese Canadians from the West Coast. Since the wartime experiences of Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians were similar, I decided to compare the fate of those two minorities after the Pearl Harbor attack. Also the Canadian policy towards the people of Japanese origin after the war is discussed here.
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The article aims at describing the main standards applied to religious art in the period under discussion. The canons of the new Codex juris canonici, which was promulgated in 1917, actually entrusted the care of religious art to diocesan ordinaries. In the first half of the 20th century, the Roman congregations frequently treated the decrees of the Council of Trent as the canons of religious art. The topical matters of religious life were reflected in the norms of the Congregation of the Holy Office and the Congregation of Rites. The requirement to come back to historical tradition, which was among the most important requirements for religious art in the late 19th and the first half of the 20th century, was based theologically. It was associated with Neothomism, the official Church's philosophy, and with the essential aim of the Holy See in the early 20th century to revitalize the internal life of the Church and to strengthen the Christian spirit. For this purpose, the matters of special concern included liturgy, the purity of liturgical practice as well as religious art. In their celebration of historical Christian art, the spiritual authorities simultaneously protected the historicizing art.Despite the fact that the first half of the 20th century saw a wide spread of the Catholic liturgical renovation movement which was supported or initiated by the popes, and notwithstanding the issuing by the Roman Curia of important documents dedicated to religious art and the intentions of Church representatives to restore religious art from the state of stagnation, religious art constituted a small portion of the Church's interests and was on the margins of the broad range of Church's activities in the period under review. Though spiritual authorities in Western Europe (as well as in Lithuania) spoke against the standardized, industrial form of religious art, churches abounded in stereotyped objects of art. They fulfilled the function of a religious work, because they were clear signs that could be easily perceived by the faithful. On the other hand, the unified production of art in churches, to paraphrase Pius XI, neither violated the sanctity of altars nor had a negative impact on piety of the faithful nor profaned the sacred values as some pieces of modern Christian art do.
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