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Ateistyczne nurty filozofii Oświecenia. Wpływ skrajnego materializmu i racjonalizmu

Author(s): Konrad Szocik / Language(s): Polish Issue: 1/2013

This paper presents the development of the basic ideas of the European enlightenment. e philosophy of the enlightenment focused on rationalism and empirical materialism. These concepts had emerged from philosophical atheism. Human reason was brought to the fore, as a new basis for ethical, ontological and epistemological authority. We can find sources for these ideas in the philosophy of Cartesian and Spinozistic rationalism, and in the empiricism and mechanism of English and French philosophy.

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Смисълът на образованието в съвременната феноменологическа онтология – Ойген Финк и Еманюел Левинас

Author(s): Stoyan Bachvarov / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 2/2021

This article discusses the problem of education according to E. Fink and E. Levinas. In Fink’s opinion, education should acquaint young people with basic phenomena of human being, and introduce them to the problems of the being as a whole, immortality, culture and history. The basic method that should be used in education is the game method. According to Levinas, education should acquaint young people with The Other, with its uniqueness and originality. Respect and preservation of otherness is the basic principle in his philosophy. Moral education can only be realized as religious education, and communication with The Other can be achieved though prayer. Religious education is what can introduce a person to the history and culture of the world.

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Moral Self-Realization in Kant and Spinoza

Author(s): Wojciech Kozyra / Language(s): English Issue: 102/2022

Spinoza and Kant are considered to be polar opposites with respect to ethics. The radical difference between them is supposed to consist in Spinoza’s ethical egoism, or interest-based Strebensethik, and Kant’s duty-cantered, deontological Sollensethik. I challenge this opposition and argue that both in Kant and Spinoza we deal with a notion of the self’s realization that is “interest”-based and therefore does not involve self-sacrifice. I show, on the one hand, that the streben in Spinoza’s Strebensethik consists in realising one’s essentially human interest, which resides in ethical-rational action, and, on the other hand, that sollen in Kant’s Sollensethik is in fact a streben of the Kantian “proper self” (eigentliches Selbst) after the realization of its ethical-rational interest.

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Икономическият морализъм на Бенджамин Франклин и духът на американския капитализъм

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Икономическият морализъм на Бенджамин Франклин и духът на американския капитализъм

Author(s): Ani Dimitrova / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 3/2023

Benjamin Franklin brought forward the principles of natural law and morality as the main element in judging the particular acts of human behavior and which of his actions are right or wrong, good or harmful to others around them. His view of democratic citizenship is at the heart of creating a democratic society in which questions of the citizenship, the federalism, the constitutional government, the role of civil association, and religious freedom are freely debated. He introduced the rationality in the actions, and the skepticism in planning and implementation, not only in politics but also in life as at the base of the pyramid of prescriptions stand virtues as a manifestation of high intelligence. He was the statesman at the heart of the formation of the young American nation's mentality, and some of his thoughts gave rise to the most powerful economy in the world. For many, Franklin is in many ways an exceptional historiographical case, encompassing the global emergence of political economy and at the same time codifying a typically capitalist ethos.

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Non-adaequatio: negatyvioji dialektika tarp Kanto ir Hegelio

Author(s): Audrius Pocius / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 103/2023

The aim of this article is to frame Adorno’s concept of ‘nonidentity’ in the context of German idealism, namely, the philosophies of Kant and Hegel. The thesis to be defended is that “Secularization of Metaphysics” entails relinquishing, as well as prolongation of the German idealist tradition. The argument is developed in the following steps: 1) the constitution of an autonomous transcendental subject is shown to be rooted in the idea of Enlightenment; 2) by reconstructing Adorno’s conception of truth as non-adaequatio, I claim that Adorno’s philosophy is conducted from the perspective of the end of philosophy; 3) the sociohistorical character of the concept of ‘nonidentity’ is discussed in relation to Adorno’s understanding of history; 4) the concept of ‘nonidentity’ is discussed as implying a continuation of the Kantian project on a metacritical level; 5) Adorno’s critique of Kant is reconstructed in the context of Hegel’s Faith and Knowledge.

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„Sokratische Seelsorge“ im 18. Jahrhundert

Author(s): Geert Franzenburg / Language(s): German Issue: 22/2022

What is “Socratic soul-care” like? Why is it an important contribution to the field of counselling and soul-care? To find an answer to such questions, the following considerations focus on two personalities who, to a certain extent, personified this tradition in the 18th century: Gregorius Skovoroda, who, depending on one’s point of view, is regarded as the “Ukrainian” or “Russian” Socrates, and Johann Georg Hamann, who has been dubbed the “Socrates of the 18th century.” Both personalities will be appreciated as main examples of a philosophical model of “Socratic pastoral care” from the perspective of the psychology of religion by evaluating and contextualizing their corresponding utterances. In order to find out how “Socratic pastoral care” was understood – at least in the 18th century – and can be understood, central aspects and themes will be elicited from original texts with the help of Grounded Theory. Evaluating the results, “Socratic pastoral care“ emerges as a holistic religiously oriented approach that focuses on a person’s relationship of trust with him/ herself, with others and with God/with life, brings it up in an accepting and appreciative atmosphere and in this way helps to resolve possible disturbances.

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K otázkám rétorické a empirické evidence v myšlení raného novověku

Author(s): Lenka Řezníková / Language(s): Czech Issue: 02/2016

The aim of this essay is to present two related but mutually contradictory cultural-historical interpretations, which explain the notion of evidence in Early Modern thought. While the first emphasises the rhetorical origins of the notion of evidentia and focuses on its rhetorical and narrative aspects, the other claims that due to the introduction of new methods in natural sciences, the notion of evidence in Early Modern Period changes and rhetorical evidence is transformed into an empirical one. This article’s aim is not to map the entire range of scholarship related to the Early Modern understanding of the notion of evidentia: it leaves aside especially those investigations which focus on ‘context- free’ evidence in the sense of ‘self-evidence’. The two abovementioned ways of understanding the notion of evidence are investigated here because they do not treat evidence as an attribute of a judgement or piece of knowledge. Rather, they see it as a historically variable aspect of the act which ascribes a judgement or piece of information the status of evidence. Mutual confrontation of the two interpretations thus also raises a question whether the rhetorical and the empirical aspects of evidence in the context of Early Modern thought are necessarily mutually exclusive.

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Crusiovo založení dějinnosti jako procesu sebekultivace v kontextech německého osvícenství

Author(s): Martin Bojda / Language(s): Czech Issue: 01/2016

Marking a double anniversary of the German Enlightenment philosopher and theologian Christian August Crucius, this study aims at presenting his contribution to a modern understanding on historicity and culture. The author explains Crucius’s opposition to the direction of German Enlightenment represented by Leibniz and Wolff, and emphasises the originality of Crucius’s concept, which takes as its starting point the organicism of metaphysics based on Christian foundations, while rejecting many influential logical methods. The exposition focuses on deducing historicity from reflexivity that transcends organicity in the sense of mere reproduction and integrates its creative potential by cultivating the understanding of derivativeness and contextuality of its own development. In bringing together the principle of historicity with ethics, Crusius’s project can be compared to Schleiermacher’s later undertaking, while its basic focus on cultural and social immanence is shared with the work of Herder and other German authors of the second half of the 18th century.

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ANALYSIS OF MONTESQUIEU’S VIEWS ON DESPOTISM

Author(s): Seyit Ali AVCU,Yusuf MUBARAK / Language(s): English Issue: 59/2023

The aim of this study was to examine Despotism most especially in the views of Montesquieu; an 18th Century French Philosopher. On the one hand, some scholars have argued that, he was the one who developed and introduced the term Despotism into Political Studies while on the other hand, others have disputed this claim. However, even though it is being asserted by some that he did not developed the term, but it is widely agreed that he was the one that developed the concept. The main goal is to find out how Despotism as a Political Ideology has helped to shape the study and understanding of Political Ideology. The study offers better comprehension and also, attempted to scrutinise the characteristics of this system of governance. It is assumed by many that, it is an ideology which is perceived with negative thoughts because it negatively affects the ethical fabric of societies. The pedals used by such leaders, governments or regimes to consolidate powers, stretches to an extent that they are seen to be above the law. Some Despots even consider themselves to be the law. This attribute has made many to get confused to an extent that they are unable to distinguish Dictatorial regimes from Despotic regimes. However, there is a clear political difference between the two. The protagonist of ideology, the execution of mind-control, the sway of media, the initiation of the misconception of solidarity, the hunt for opposition, arbitrary rule, etc. are all traits of Despotism.

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SPINOZA’S CRITIQUE OF RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE

Author(s): Przemysław Gut / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2022

This article presents a new interpretation of Spinoza’s account of religious intolerance. According to Rosenthal and Steinberg Spinoza explains the origins of religious intolerance in two ways. The first is in the Ethics, which is grounded on the affect of ambition; the second in the Theological-Political Treatise, which is based on the opposed affects of fear and hope. I agree with this interpretation, yet I considerably modify and supplement this account. The interpretation I propose rests on the observation that in order to understand Spinoza's view we need to draw the subtle distinction between the explanation of the psychological causes of religious intolerance and the elucidation of why religious intolerance appears to appeal so much. First, I shall discuss Spinoza’s account of the origin of religious intolerance. Second, I shall discuss what it is about us, according to Spinoza, that makes us exposed to religious intolerance. Third, I shall consider the measures which, in his view, should be taken in order to curb religious intolerance effectively.

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Уилям Окам за свободата, предопределението, предзнанието и бъдещи случайни събития и тяхната интерпретация при Вилхелм Готфрид Лайбниц

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Уилям Окам за свободата, предопределението, предзнанието и бъдещи случайни събития и тяхната интерпретация при Вилхелм Готфрид Лайбниц

Author(s): Oleg Georgiev / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 29/2023

This paper continues an earlier debate on whether “God can know more than He knows”. In the present text I offer further comments on some key concepts that were only scarcely addressed or left without additional clarification. It is an attempt to draw attention to the issue about the relation between God’s knowledge and future contingent events, as well as some key concepts from the philosophy of Ockham and Leibniz, such as: “future contingent events”, “freedom”, “created free will” etc. The relationship between predestination and free will is also addressed in Ockham’s treatise on divine foreknowledge, providence, and future contingent events (1322-1324). Ockham’s interest in the possibility for a principled logical solution to the theological problems of predestination and God‘s foreknowledge of future contingent events is also explored. I am briefly discussing how this theme affected the philosophical debate in the following centuries, particularly Leibniz’ views on freedom, free will, predestination, and divine foreknowledge. The reason why the issues raised by Ockham were still relevant in later times is rooted in the difficulty to address them adequately. Resolving these issues gets (or ‘returns’) us back to a fascinating medieval debate, which Leibniz inherited and sustained with his comments.

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Projekt nauki o człowieku w teorii jestestw organicznych Jędrzeja Śniadeckiego

Author(s): Kamila Gęsikowska / Language(s): Polish Issue: 2/2023

This article presents the project of science of man introduced by Jędrzej Śniadecki in his theory of organic beings. Śniadecki (1768-1838) is known primarily as a remarkable chemist, physician and physiologist, as well as a teacher. One of the author’s most important works, reissued many times and translated into other languages, is The Theory of Organic Beings, published in 1804 (vol. 1) and 1811 (vol. 2). It was in that work where Śniadecki laid out the considerations regarding the creation of “the science of man.” As he wrote, what biologically distinguishes man from other animals at the same time connects him with them. Therefore, he postulated treating man as a creature belonging to the kingdom of animate nature, simultaneously assuming that man should be studied both in relation to other animate beings and to “beings similar to him” - other people in “social relations,” which are the cornerstone of the development of civilisation. The author focuses on presenting the relation outlined by Śniadecki between what is biological in man and what belongs to the sphere of civilisation.

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KAKO (ZA)MISLITI REPUBLIKU: ČETIRI PREDSTAVE

Author(s): Predrag Krstić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 3/2023

The work points to irreconcilable differences and internal tensions that under the term ‘republic’ are inherited, primarily, by the eighteenth century, which was favorable to it. Those disagreements and ambivalences, which determine modern theory to a good extent, are presented, respectively, through understandings of the republic in the Enlightenment, romanticism, republicanism and in the tradition of the ‘republic of letters’. It is concluded that the emancipatory potential that is invested in the republic, if it has the same or a similar point of resistance – for example: monarchy, church domination of social life, what was once called the concise catchphrase ‘throne and altar’, the abolition of privatized and/or particular decision-making monopolies and all misconceptions, prejudices, and the authorities that legitimize them – did not have at all the same or a similar vision of the desirable state after the coup has taken place, that is, in the name of what the republic should be established.

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FENOMENOLOGIJA KANTOVOG OSEĆANJA POŠTOVANJA, ILI KAKO IZGLEDA HTETI DOBRO

Author(s): Katarina Njegovan / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 1/2023

Given Kant’s claim that the moral value of an action depends on whether the will is determined „objectively by law and subjectively by pure respect for this practical law” (AA 4:400), this research is focused not on the usual a priori objective derivation of moral principles in thesis/in hypothesis, but on their subjective application in concreto. In other words, the paper examines how human beings, as sensuous beings, are affected by the principles of their own practical reason. Kant states that human beings can’t understand how they are motivated by a moral law because it is inexplicable to the human mind how an intelligible cause (law) produces a sensuous consequence (respect) that, whether we like it or not, find in the soul. By denying the possibility of (objective) knowledge of the source of the feeling of respect from the “thirdperson perspective”, Kant makes room for the phenomenology of this feeling and shows how the subjective experience of coercion of the will by the reason of the moral law looks like “from the first-person perspective”

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RAZDVAJANJE DRŽAVE I CRKVE KAO TEMELJ RELIGIJSKE TOLERANCIJE U LOKOVOJ POLITIČKOJ MISLI

Author(s): Ivan Matić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 3/2021

The subject of this paper will be the analysis of the question of religious toleration in the political thought of seventeenth century English philosopher John Locke. The first part of the paper will discuss the foundational principles of Locke’s political thought, particularly his contract theory. The second part will be dedicated to situating his positions on freedom of religion within the domain of that theory, accentuating the moment of separation between church and state. The final part will analyze the implications of religious toleration, as well as its limits, upon which Locke’s criterion of freedom of religion will be critically examined.

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MATEMATIČKI I DINAMIČKI UZVIŠENO U LIKOVNOJ UMETNOSTI

Author(s): Iva Draškić Vićanović / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 2/2021

Taking into account the intriguing fact that Kant in his Critique of Judgment, when the category of sublime in arts is concerned, mentions the examples of the sublime in art just in the field of fine arts, specifically – architecture, and only in the context of mathematically sublime, author organizes research in this text in two directions, i.e. raises two important questions: 1 ) What are the possible philosophical reasons why Kant does so and 2) Is it, if at all, and by what means, possible to discuss dynamically sublime in the fine arts.

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PRIMA FACIE DUŽNOSTI I STRUKTURA ETIČKOG OBJAŠNJENJA

Author(s): Monika Jovanović / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 3/2019

I begin with the thesis that the most appropriate classification of ethical theories pertains to their structural characteristics and give the advantage to the particularism/ generalism dichotomy over the deontological/teleological and act-centered/agent-centered classifications. Subsequently I use the example of Ross’s ethics of prima facie duties to illustrate how this distinction can be properly applied to a seemingly problematic case. In the first part of the paper I aim to show that Ross’s view is, in spite of its use of deontological terminology, essentially particularist. I then examine the specificities of Ross’s pluralism and explore the connection between prima facie duties and normative moral reasons. In the second part of the paper I criticize Audi’s interpretation of Ross’s ethics and show that Ross’s view doesn’t have the normative implications that Audi ascribes to it.

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Kondorseova teorema porote: Opšta volja i epistemička demokratija

Author(s): Miljan Vasić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 4/2018

My aim in this paper is to explain what Condorcet’s jury theorem is, and to examine its central assumptions, its significance to the epistemic theory of democracy and its connection with Rousseau’s theory of general will. In the first part of the paper I will analyze an epistemic theory of democracy and explain how its connection with Condorcet’s jury theorem is twofold: the theorem is at the same time a contributing historical source, and the model used by the authors to this day. In the second part I will specify the purposes of the theorem itself, and examine its underlying assumptions. Third part will be about an interpretation of Rousseau’s theory, which is given by Grofman and Feld relying on Condorcet’s jury theorem, and about criticisms of such interpretation. In the fourth, and last, part I will focus on one particular assumption of Condorcet’s theorem, which proves to be especially problematic if we would like to apply the theorem under real-life conditions; namely, the assumption that voters choose between two options only.

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BENTAM I METAETIKA

Author(s): Nenad N. Cekić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 2/2017

„Project Bentham“ which has been started in 1968 is still in progress. This effort of editing Bentham’s voluminous work is naturally accompanied with „new readings“ of Bentham’s old text. Some of those editorial readings shade some light on some of Bentham’s almost forgotten endeavors in the areas of philosophy of language and logic. In this paper author analyze some Bentham’s ideas significant for the contemporary metaethics: 1) facts/values distinction; 2) analytical approach to the language in general; and 3) the theory of fictitious entities. The author concludes that some of Bentham’s analysis and proposals are similar to Charles Stevenson’s metaethical “emotivism”.

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JEDAN VAŽAN MOMENAT U RAZUMEVANJU TRANSCENDENTALNE APERCEPCIJE ILI ZAŠTO DOKAZ DŽ. E. MURA O POSTOJANJU SPOLJAŠNJEG SVETA NE MOŽE BITI ISPRAVAN

Author(s): Aleksandar Stevanović / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 4/2016

The first goal of this text was to show how the synthesis of transcendental apperception in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, in addition to knowledge, also includes the synthesis of existence, given by the "feeling of existence". Explaining the a priori based connection between the power of knowledge and the power of feeling satisfaction and dissatisfaction, the author proves that the moment of existence given by feeling must be given simultaneously in the synthesis of transcendental apperception with the moment of knowledge in the perception of the inner sense. In the second part of the paper, the correctness of the "Proof of the Existence of the External World" by the English philosopher George Edward Moore is examined. The author points out the unsustainability of metaphysical and transcendental assumptions, which Moore uses in his proof, and the impossibility of claiming that something "is known even though it cannot be proven". Using the results of the first part of the text, the author, on the basis of the function of transcendental apperception in Immanuel Kant's philosophy, explains the nature of the error of Moore's proof and the reason for its incorrectness.

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