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Educating a human being is a task that has always stood close to philosophy and sometimes has become philosophy itself, as in the life work of Socrates following the motto with heroic consistency: “Know thyself ” (scire te ipsum). European culture adopted this principle and incorporated it into its intellectual-spiritual tissue in various guises over the centuries. During the Middle Ages, in the works of Christian thinkers inspired by Neoplatonic philosophy (such as in the views of the scholars of the Saint Victor school in Paris), this tradition was combined with the motif of “being beauty” (pulchrum esse) and enriched by aesthetic thought; beauty with all its richness of form and expression, together with truth and goodness, as Plotinus wanted, marked out the path of man;s “renewal” and showed him the ultimate goal of beatum esse — being happy. The sensitivity and aesthetic sophistication of the Victorine authors of the 12th-century theory of education breathe freshness and an Epicurean joie de vivre, which certainly creates the potential to appeal to contemporary man.
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Omar Khayyam is a famous Iranian scholar from the 12th century. In addition to working in several scientific fields (first of all, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy), he was also engaged in writing poetry in the form of rubaiyat. Although he was highly respected and admired, there is not much reliable information about Khayyam’s life; therefore, the debate about his spiritual identity continues to this day, as well as the question of the genre situation of his poetry. According to one of the presented positions on the mentioned issues, Khayyam was a Sufi, and his rubaiyat should be read in the key of Sufi poetry. In this paper, the stated point of view is reexamined. Based on the data on Khayyam’s life collected from primary sources, as well as the poetic characteristics of his rubaiyat, it can be concluded that there are no valid arguments for such a position.
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Social relations are among the most complex matters in history of the Inner and Western Asia. Archaeological and narrative sources do not offer us a complete picture of daily life and intra-family relations. Written accounts focused on the warriors, campaigns and deeds of the rulers. However, episodic information and ethnographic data allow us to look into the world of children and childhood. Among the medieval Kok Türks, the relations among children in the same family are a model in the construction of the state. As in any patriarchal family, the relationship was based on obeying to the elders, i. e. the father and elder brothers. The elders take care of the general well-being of the family, protect the younger ones, and in return, the younger brothers and sisters obey them and their requirements. Among the Kok Türks, the dynastic clan “Ashina and Ashide” were recognized as “elder brothers”, while the people — “Budun” — became their “younger brother”. All this, together with religious ideas, ensured the stability of the society during the 200 years of the existence of the Khaganate and in subsequent successor states of the Kok Türks.
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The questions put forward in the article were the following: What was the legal status of women of the knightly class during the period of feudal fragmentation in the Cracow-Sandomierz Duchy, and what was the fate of these women? The conclusions were drawn on the basis of documents written in Little Poland during the period under discussion in which women were mentioned. They appeared in the documents most often together with their husbands or as widows granting charters mainly for the benefit of Church, or they were mentioned with regard to the matters that concerned them. In light of the known documents, it should be concluded that there was a possibility of women disposing of their property in the province of Cracow and Sandomierz during the period of feudal fragmentation. Some women appear in several documents that usually concerned the same issue.
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Source knowledge searches can be conducted in different directions, including in the linguistic field. This or that manuscript may become a new source for the research of various issues of historical grammar. Such is the Gelatian manuscript (K14), which contains several interesting materials in theological, philosophical, historical, linguistic, and other directions. In the article, we discuss the attempts to reflect the grammatical category of gender in the grammatical system of the Georgian language. We will conduct the discussion based on the 12thcentury Gelatian translation of St. Maximus the Confessor's "Questions and Answers to Thalasses". We also take into account the indications of the original Greek text of the works. In the article, we will also discuss one metatext of a linguistic nature, which was made by the Gelatian anonymous translator on one of the pages of the manuscript. The mentioned text is related to the issue of the representation of the grammatical category of gender in the Georgian text and also to the manner of production of derogatory forms. The named samples demonstrate the necessity of studying old Georgian sources from the point of view of studying this or that issue of historical grammar.
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The modern world we live in shows a growing tendency in profiling social phenomena and providing scientific explanations for their emergence. This tendency is directed at finding a discipline and the scientific field for almost all the possible challenges in life and all human relations which determines it, analyses it empirically, and provides a framework for its development. In this sense, managing and directing people, which in the past could have been viewed as a form of one’s intuition, as one’s inborn or acquired skill for working with people, is today established on the bases of clearly pre-set parameters and standards which need to be achieved in order to establish a functional process of management. The Western world has developed significantly in this regard, whereas for Muslims, speaking in a broader social context, this idea is relatively unknown, and the present condition of Umma is in such a state wherein any systematic organization of human potentials is not likely to evolve in the perceivable future. The author here tries to stress that religious teachings can not be the reason for such a state, because the Messenger s.w.s. himself has set an example of good management of human resources, especially in some critical circumstances. He thus endowed Muslims with a normative paradigm in this regard. Thus he here discusses the leadership competencies of the Messenger s.w.s. through the accounts of a battle of crucial significance, i.e. the Battle of Badr.
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A Eurasian motif complex built around the illusion of a flood was described by Artёm Koz’min in 2011 under the preliminary name of the Saint Euplus Miracle. Subsequently, this discovery proved to be productive in the understanding of the development of some Chinese plots including the image of a magic paintbrush. This article deals with a combination of the magic paintbrush image and the borrowed motif complex centred around water that apears miraculously, or the illusion of it, in Chinese tradition. The image of a magic brush has been widespread in the literature and folklore of China for centuries, although this combination, which underlies the famous tale Ma Liang and his Magic Brush, remains unnoticed. The aim of the article is to describe the Chinese version of the Saint Euplus Miracle and to point out its characteristic features. In all the Chinese examples analysed, the role of the magic helper was prominent, while in the non-Chinese cases the helper was generally absent. Another feature specific to the Chinese cases was the helper giving the hero a magic object for use in drawing.
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The paper explores materials, methods and approaches used by Russian sinologists to define and analyse the cult of Guan Yu (also known as Guan-gong, Guan-di, etc.), a popular god of the Chinese pantheon, revered by Daoists, Buddhists and educated Confucians, and who was also granted a number of imperial titles. Guan Yu was worshipped in late imperial China as God of war and wealth, paragon of moral virtue and loyalty to the ruler. Published and unpublished materials by Russian scholars shed light on beliefs and practices related to Guan Yu and display an array of methods including translation of original Chinese sources, field observations, scrutiny of numerous written and oral sources as well as mythological motifs. The paper displays how various angles and approaches to the same subject – worship of Guan Yu – allow a multifaceted and wholesome vision of this god’s place in Chinese traditional culture.
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In this article I deal with the floral imagery encountered by the reader of the sequences of Adam of Saint Victor († 1150). This author is one of the most important representatives of the school that operated for several centuries, beginning in the 12th century, at the Parisian canonical abbey of Saint Victor. There is little literature about his work in the Polish writing at the present time. The study is divided into two parts. The first is a review of the source material. Here I present successive fragments of Adam’s sequences in which floral motifs appear. When it comes to the second part of the text, I share in it some observations of a different nature, collecting them into four points. These observations are, of course, related to the relevant imagery.
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In the present pages, entitled ”Romanos the Melodist, the patron of psalts”, the author shows that the famous hymnographer did not create but perfected the kontakion and that he is not the creator of the akathist. In addition, specialist studies argue that the herself origin of the Oratorio must be sought in the hymns of Romanos the Melodist and the polyphony in Byzantine music.
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In course of the long-term research on the architectural decoration of Christian churches in Abkhazia and Southern Ossetia, there has been gathered a great number of important materials (that help to correct the date of some groups of artefacts and to identify some new subjects, as well as to put them in the artistic context of the life of the Byzantine Empire and its periphery in the period between the 10th and the beginning of the 11th centuries). However, lapidary collections that originate from these regions have not been studied from the point of view of function and its reliefs. It is necessary to separate the fragments of the altar barriers from the ones of the facades of the Christian churches. Studying of the analogies from the neighboring regions (modern territory of Georgia, Armenia, Asia Minor, other parts of the Byzantine Empire) and using the modern methods of research (3D reconstructions) could permit to visualize many principal monuments (small forms and monumental decoration) that originate from the above-mentioned regions. Such research is important for the studying of the artistic culture of these regions in the period of the genesis of the self-conscience of their tribes (end of the 9th cent. – beginning of the 11th cent.) and their separation from the political and cultural influence of the hegemon, that is the Byzantine Empire. Reconstruction of some monuments (altar barriers, decorative system of the facades) and drafting of the typological lines could afford us to demonstrate the meaning of the two regions for the Christian culture of the Southern Caucasus in the period concerned. It is also important to show their interrelations with the neighboring territories. Actuality of the problem is proved by the active research led, for example, in Georgia, Russian Federation, France, etc. Originality of research is proved by the fact that small forms and facade decoration of the Christian churches in Abkhazia and Southern Ossetia in the period in question have not been systematically studied yet. The previous studies focused on the paleo Christian period and the dates supposed for some key monuments have been essentially corrected by recent research. Meanwhile, this territory (Western Georgia, passes between Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Abkhazia, Southern Ossetia and Racha) played a decisive role in the formation of the original type of medieval artistic Christian conscience.
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The article provides a comparative analysis of two fundamentally different Byzantine versions of the Life of St. John Climacus conventionally referred to as the “early version” and the “late version”. The material for the analysis included the texts published by Jacques Paul Migne in the Patrologia Graeca (the early version) and by Archimandrite Ignatius (the late version). Both versions became originals for early Slavonic translations. The early version formed the basis of the Preslav and Athos translations and, thanks to the extreme popularity of the Athos translation, became well known to the Slavonic reader. The early version became widely known to the Russian reader, as it was used by the Optina monks in their Russian translation of the Life of St. John Climacus. The late version formed the basis of the Tarnovo and Serbian translations and received limited distribution in the Bulgarian and Serbian lands in the XIV–XVI centuries. The comparative analysis of the Byzantine versions of the Life led to the conclusion that the main goal pursued by the editor was to strengthen the sacred component of the content of the text. All means from the editor’s arsenal were used to reach this goal, with inserts and lexical variations playing a special role. At the heart of all the editor’s decisions is the desire to show the ideal image of the Saint. The editor eliminates lexemes with possible negative connotations from the text, saturates the text with biblical allusions, updates quotations from the Holy Scriptures, adds fragments showing the philanthropy and generosity of the Lord, the power of prayer, etc. The late version clearly shows the evolution of the hagiographic genre in Byzantine literature. Since the late version remained unknown to the Russian reader, a promising task for philologists is to translate this version into Russian and prepare the academic edition of the Life of St. John Climacus as an important source for the study of the hagiographic canon
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The subject of this study is how and in what scope Ovid uses the terms of blackness (ater, niger, pullus, piceus, fuscus) occurring in Latin in his Metamorphoses. Particular attention is paid to those places in the poem where this blackness enhances the dynamics of the situations described by the poet, gaining at the same time a specific axiological qualification, and also justifies through its presence the conventional use of the colour as an expression of mourning. This non-typical usage of the terms mentioned above leads to the conclusion that in this aspect of his poetic creativity, Ovid depicts the mythical reality he presents in an absolutely non-imitative manner, but rather full of at times surprising expressionistic colour associations.
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This article describes the events of the 560s, when the queen-nun Radegund acquired the relic of the True Cross for her convent in Poitiers. Her request for the major Christian shrine to the Byzantine Emperor Justin II and his wife Sophia was untimely: the foreign policy situation at that moment was very difficult – the Kingdom of the Franks was divided among the sons of King Chlothar I. Sigebert, the ruler of Austrasia, sought to strengthen his power and influence among the Franks and in the international scene. The conquests of the Lombards forced the Byzantines and the Franks to seek peace with each other. The obtained results show that both states took advantage of the situation with the relic to conclude a peace treaty without openly declaring their intentions. The roles of each participant in the organization of the embassy to the court of Justin II in 568 are considered. The ulterior motives of the poetic messages sent by Radegund to her relatives in Constantinople are analyzed. These events are a good example of how Sigebert, one of the Frankish kings, solved the foreign and domestic political tasks of that time. The casus with the relic of the True Cross reveals the “inside” of the political and diplomatic mechanics in Byzantium and the Frankish kingdoms.
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King John of England (1199–1216) has his 'own' historical mythology, known almost worldwide. It is therefore difficult to see his rule unbiased. In the traditional narrative he has every characteristic of a 'bad monarch'. In English medieval history he is an archetype of the immoral and unprincipled ruler with immense ambition. It seems predestined that the barons would oppose the 'evil king' and implement the Magna Carta in 1215 at Runnymede. For a long time, research has not really looked beyond the surface, did not examine in depth how the king governed, contenting itself with the fact that he destroyed the work of his father, the great Plantagenet, Henry II. All we knew was what the Magna Carta implied: he levied taxes in violation of the law. His reign is so overshadowed by the great charter of liberties as if nothing else had happened. There are objective factors that may shed a different light on John’s reign. For decades, Henry II had been building up his own Plantagenet government, a strict system of power that could have been the subject of discontent much earlier. Magna Carta was the result of a longer process. The grievances of the barons can be traced back to the 1170s, and while they cannot be separated from John’s rule, they must be examined in the context of the whole Plantagenet regime. John did nothing but continued his father's methods, but he was now seen as a 'despot'. It is clear that the crisis was not entirely rooted in the king's 'twisted' personality, or his 'diabolical' character. The political and social situation was full of tensions that none of the Plantagenets could have found a remedy for.
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An important development for the highly centralized military orders in the 12th century was the formation of provinces. By the middle of the 13h century, hundreds of preceptories had been established across Europe and the Holy Land, and the leadership of the orders had to maintain close contact with them. It was done predominantly through the general chapter, modeled after the organization of the Cistercian order. It was the most important decisionmaking body of the military orders, including the Knights Hospitaller, where the leaders of the provinces (priors, provincial masters) could represent their administrative units in the province. This study examines the institution of the general chapter of the Knights Hospitaller, its purpose of counterbalancing the power of the Grand Master, and the transformation of this decision-making body in the late Middle Ages. In the period between the 12th and 16th centuries, the general chapter of the Knights Hospitaller convened at irregular times, mostly to appoint the leaders of the order, levy taxes, and discuss disciplinary issues. By the 15th century, two important changes had been introduced. First, from the middle of the century, convening the general chapter was included in the regulations of the order, second, it became obvious that these meetings became grounds of the constant political conflicts within the order. The influence of certain tongues (lingua) changed significantly over time, and the new power balance was represented at these meetings. In light of this information, the “affiliation” of the Hungarian-Slavonian priory can also be reassessed.
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In this research, the figurative ceramic bibelots produced in the lands of Syria and Iran, which were dominated by the Great Selcuk State, between the 11th and 13th centuries, are the subject. These are examples made of composite siliceous white clay and decorated with different decor techniques. Among the examples encountered, there are figures such as bird, harpy, camel, lion, cavalry, bull and single human figures. The aim of the research is to evaluate the form features seen in the figure types encountered in bibelots, approaches in design interpretations and forming techniques. One of the results of the research is the thought that the casting technique was used in the production of Selcuk ceramic bibelots. This idea was developed based on the traces left by the joints of the segmented molds on the body and the design features of the forms. The handling of ceramic bibelots, which constitute an important part of the Selcuk cultural heritage, will allow us to get to know that art more closely, and on the other hand, will contribute to the expansion of the possibilities of today's ceramic art.
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With the acceptance of Islam by the Turks, serious differences have been observed in Turkish literary activities starting from the XI and XIIth centuries, Literary movement called "Divan literature", which developed under the influence of Arabic and especially Persian literature in the early periods, appeared. Since Divan poetry is a literature that is based on the Islamic religion, the influence of other religions and cultures, which entered into the religion of Islam and which we call Isrâiliyyat, inevitably has made itself felt in this literature. The parables of the Prophets made up a rich material for Divan poetry and has become referenced sources frequently by Divan poets. The creation and life story of Prophet Adam, who is accepted as the first human being in all Abrahamic religions, also attracted the attention of Divan poets, and narrations about him were frequently used in couplets. In this study, the narrations about Hz. Adam in Divan poetry has been analyzed and these narrations have been compared with the verses in the Qur'an in which Hz. Adam is described. As a result of this comparison, the narrations that do not have a reference in the verses or contradict the verses are considered within the realm of Isrâiliyat.
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The fatihnames are texts the political power wrote to express itself, explain and defend its victory, and show exultation in its success. Among the fatihnames from the Khwarazmshah Dynasty, this study has chosen those from its establishment, rise, and collapse: the Jand, Bukhara, and Ahlat Fatihnames. The texts are compared with other sources describing the events and government documents that still exist. The study examines the fatihnames in terms of form/content to answer what they can tell historians. The Khwarazmshahs’ fatihnames gave much space to defending/emphasizing the concepts of ruler/sovereignty and explaining governmental and conquest legitimacy using divine sources. Accordingly, God has chosen the ruler for his characteristics to govern a region, even the world, and provides unlimited support and help in his endeavors. Fatihnames’ mostly concern defending governmental legitimacy, but also have information for historians, such as military operations’ courses/outcomes and fatihnames’ addressees. This study believes fatihnames’ main importance is how they officially expressed and understood dozens of concepts such as greatness, virtues, negligence, good/evil, happiness, blessings, mercy, arrogance, renegades, miracles, and patience, concepts that the era’s literature also constantly were processing.
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