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Од друге половине 19. века у Србији су настајала путујућа позоришта, „пешачке трупе“, „летећи театри“, „путујуће дружине“ које су окупљале заљубљенике у позоришну уметност, имајући велики просветно-културни, национални и уметнички значај у развоју нашег народа.
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The paper deals with the causes, preparations, course and results of the expedition of Polish scholars from Poznań in October 1935 with the aim of getting acquainted with the German archaeological excavations on Wolin. The paper is based on so far unused source materials. The expedition is presented within the context of the political and scholarly relations between Poland and Germany.
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Before the Second World War European states have launched different preparations for the unconventional warfare and particularly guerrilla warfare. Partisan warfare has attained a special attention in the USSR. Russia has its own deeply rooted history of organized guerilla warfare since Peter I. Widely spread and military organized partisan operations took place during the war against Napoleon in 1812–1813 (Davydow, Seslavin, Figner ets). Theoretical approaches to the partisan warfare based by D.Davydow were developed by the later generations of imperial Russian officers. After the October revolution of 1917 Bolsheviks immediately launched a partisan war in Russia. They had got an assistance of several General Stuff officers specialized in guerilla warfare: general V.E.Borisow, general V.N.Klembovsky, Colonel P.P.Karatygin etc. Soviet military leader M.Frunze stressed the role of partisan warfare in the struggle of poorly armed but ideologically motivated masses against foreign invaders or "domestic exploitators". The theory of small war was analyzed in the monographic studies of P.P.Karatygin and M.A.Drobov. During 1924–1936 special military schools and courses prepared a big number of partisan instructors for the domestic use in case of foreign intervention and to "set ablaze" Europe and Asia. After the strengthening of Stalin's authoritarian regime military and state security schools for partisan preparations were closed. Military opposition in Red army looked dangerous for Stalin till the net of specially trained and totally anonymous subversive and guerrilla experts supported it. Last pre-war full-scale action of soviet partisan experts took place in Spain in 1936–1938. Only after the fall of the USSR soviet partisan military preparations lost the "top secret" status. The beginning of this process was based on the interviews and articles of I.Starinov (1900–2000) – one of the founders of "specnaz" and soviet subversive schools' trainer from the Civil war till late years of USSR.
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Spreading of the Kačak movement in Kosovo, Metohija and western Macedonia in the first decades of the Yugoslav state was primarily result of the unsolved territorial issues after the period of wars between 1912 and 1918. The Albanian insurgency against the Turkish rule had meanwhile evolved into a powerful instrument of the Austro-Hungarian, Italian, Albanian and Bulgarian policy in the Balkans. The culmination of armed incursions from Albania (1918–1924) took place in an extremely difficult moment for the authority of the newly formed Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Being caught between the legal transitional period it was going through, ethnic tensions in the northwest and heavy fighting with Bulgarian Komitas in the southeast of the country, the Yugoslav state took up tackling the Kačak issue in a quite inapt manner. The situation was aggravated by the anarchy in the aftermath of the war, „innate fright of authorities“, the open border with Albania, the unconsolidated state apparatus, and synchronic activities of the Kačak and Komita movements. However, the Kačaks were partly subdued in 1924 under the circumstances which luckily coincided both at home and abroad (restoration of the Zogu’s regime and normalisation of the Yugoslav-Albanian relations, the assassination of the Kačak leader in Drenica Azem Bejt, the amnesty granted by the Davidovic’s government, etc.). Although the movement lost its vigour and strength, and their ideologist left the country, the problem eventually turned to have been merely postponed. The failure to eradicate the Albanian insurgency may be explained in the light of the wide-spread tribal solidarity among Kosovo’s Albanians, the power of the ideas on Greater Albania, and political trade of surviving landowners (beys) oligarchy with the Radical Party leaders, which eventually led to the outbreak of Albanian irredentism shortly before the World War II.
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Comintern in the 20–30s of the 20th century was a strong and unique organization that controlled and financed the net of legal and especially illegal communist parties all over the world. For communist parties Comintern was not only a source of funding, but also logistical background, a place for recovery, restructuring and training of their staff. Preparing for armed insurrection and guerrilla warfare was a significant component in the training of party staff in the Soviet Union in 1920–1937. Instructions and courses differed from time to time and from party to party but they always had the immanent backbone – to consider the civil war and revolution as the basic way to install the communist régime. The lectures were based on the knowledge and methods collected during the Russian revolution and civil war and during unsuccessful rebellions in Germany, Estonia, Bulgaria, Hungary, China etc. There were different levels of military training according to the skill and capabilities of the students: partisan training courses in common Comintern faculties, Military-partisan Academy under K. Swierczewsky and for the most upgraded – partisan and saboteur or military schools of Red Army. All the segments of partisan education were controlled by soviet military intelligence. The key feature of Comintern’s „partisan training“ was exceptional brevity and conciseness of the program. It was achieved because: all the general and introductory information was eliminated, the students were carefully selected, there was used a system of active interchange of knowledge between students and lecturers („learning from the students“). The training activities of Comintern in the USSR were stopped in 193, and after the Civil war in Spain begun military trainings courses for foreign communist staff were transferred to the Iberian peninsular. The Civil war in Spain became a real practical exam for partisan forces and instructors of Comintern and all the communist parties in its net.
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This publication is intended to demonstrate that the League of Nations is the main factor to resolve the armed conflict between Greece and Bulgaria and preserving peace in the Balkans in October 1925. A peaceful proposal by President Wilson to the European powers on 18 December 1916 for the formation of an international organization to ensure peace throughout the world quickly „matures“ and took place on January 25, 1919. Peace building emerged as a priority in the work of the League of Nations. According to Art. 10 of its Statute, each State Party to the international organization is obliged to respect the territorial integrity of member states in the organization. Greek-Bulgarian armed conflict constitutes a League of Nations touchstone from which you will see how it is not only proclaimed but it is an actual international organization that is able to eliminate the conflict. Moreover, both involved in armed conflict countries are members of the League of Nations. Chronological limits of the treated problems include the time from 22 of October to 12 of December 1925.The intervention of League of Nations to end the Greek-Bulgarian armed conflict is a verbal note from Bulgarian government to secretary of the Council of League of Nations Sir Eric Dramond in which insists on the convening of an emergency to resolve the conflict on 22 October 1925. Sir F. Dramond immediately informed the Chairman Aristied Brian and had decided to convene an extraordinary session of Council of League of Nations in Paris on 26 that month. As a result of coordination between them F. Briand sent a telegram with the same content to governments of countries involved in a conflict on 23–24 October. Informing the governments decision to convene an emergency in connection with the Greek-Bulgarian armed conflict, two countries are urged to comply with Art. 12 of the League of Nations Covenant, they are forbidden to resort a war. During the XXXVI session dedicated to the Greek-Bulgarian armed conflict, are held five meetings in 1925 from 26 to 30 October. The action of the military attaches-Delta, Dzhayns and Visconti, whose mission started on 27 October and ended on 9 November, 1925 deserves attention. The Council of League of Nations formed an international committee to clarify the reasons, occasion, and the consequences of the Greek-Bulgarian armed conflict, and also measures to prevent future ones. The Presidency is entrusted to the British ambassador in Madrid Horast Rambold, its members are the French General Major General Serini, Italian General Major Ferario, Plenipotentiary Minister of Sweden in The Hague de Adlerkroyts a member of the Dutch Parliament Droklever Fortuin. Abraham H. is. a Secretary of the committee and Captains Metheny, Sispendes and Pietromarko are his assistants. The report of O. Chamberlain referred to the functions and duties of the International Inquiry committee. Its members have to develop and make specific proposals to the Council of League of Nations to prevent future armed conflicts between the two countries. The examined documents demonstrated undeniable desire for objectivity and impartiality of the International Inquiry committee. It describes the attack of the Greek army on 22 October 1925 as a deliberate intervention in the territory of sovereign Bulgaria.
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Yugoslav students were trained at the „communist military schools” in the USSR till the last school year of “Partisan Academy in the Soviet Union” in 1936/1937. The Yugoslav communist manual for subversive activities captured by the Yugoslav General Staff in 1937 had been written according to the soviet manuals. There are several memoirs on training at the “communist military schools” in the USSR left by Yugoslavs (M. Golubich, V. Begovich, J. Kopinich, R. Cholakovich, B. Maslarich, P. Kostich, etc).. Even Josip Broz Tito had been trained and later participated as a postgraduate assistance lecturer in the work of a “communist military school” in the USSR The Civil war in Spain had a great significance in the reinforcement of the Comintern partisan and revolutionary staff. K. Mrazovich, I. Goshnyak, B. Maslarich and several other Yugoslav communist leaders left their memories about the redeployment to Spain of Yugoslav partisan experts prepared in the USSR. Development of partisan and sabotage operations in Spain, directed by Soviet instructors, was described by the vast number of Yugoslav participants of the events. A large number of Soviet military-technical instructors (H.-U. Mamsurov, N. Patrahalcev, A. K. Sprogis, I. G. Starinov, S. A. Vaupshasov, N. I. Schelokov, G. Sirojezhkin, L. P. Vasiljevski, A. F. Zvjagin, A. M. Rabcevich, N. G. Kovalenko, V. Z. Korzh, N. A. Prokopec) trained the selected members of the International brigades in partisan tactics and sabotage. Jan Berzin, the chief of Soviet military intelligence from 1924 to 1935, was the supervisor. Among those students there was a relatively significant number of Yugoslavs. After the Civil War in Spain, most of the Yugoslav “Spaniards” was hold in a special camp in France. There are some indirect evidences that the return to Yugoslavia of those men trained for guerrilla operations was carried out with the help of Soviet special services. Two hundred and fifty Yugoslav “Spaniards” participated in the partisan war on the Western Balkan since 1941 to 1945. They became one of the most important pillars in organization of the partisan movement in Yugoslavia.
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The interest of the Yugoslav state in the emigrants to the USA was wide and comprehensive. Material assistance, financial source, support in defense of political interest, importance for the development of tourism, etc., were only some of the recognized benefits which a new state with over a half million immigrants to America might have had. The starting point was the principle of the people unity, in spite of the emigrant status of certain individuals. In accordance with this principle, some rights and obligations of the emigrants toward the state were defined by law, even though it sometimes contradicted the actual reality. With a direct interest and involvement in the process of emigration, the Ministry of Army was an inevitable factor, which also played an important role in building relations with the emigrants. The expectations that the people who had already emigrated may do their national service, as well as high expectations of prominent individuals among emigrants, were in a way the expression of the national unity and an aspect of the Yugoslav policy towards the emigrants. At the same time, the unrealistic concept about the emigrants, without an objective assessment of what might be possible, along with sometimes clumsy gestures of the Yugoslav authorities, which added to the lack of trust or even animosity of some groups of the emigrants towards the new state, materialized through attempts at implementation of recruitment policy and generally activities of the military character. On the other hand, insisting on the military national service and expectations of distinguished individuals from the emigrant community provide pieces for completion of the picture presenting the policy of the Yugoslav authority towards the emigrants and make the ground for a specific insight into the actual achievements and dynamic of the development of these relations.
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The article uses the case of one of the Belgrade’s central buildings to demonstrate two processes which can be understood as the consequences of the Great War. The Warriors Hall was built by the main veteran organization of the former Serbian Royal Army, the Society of the Reserved Army Officers and Warriors, thus the construction of the edifice can be treated as the case study of the functioning of the Society. The interest of that organization was focused towards the improvement of the material position of the veterans, but the preservation of the memory of the conflict was priority as well. In this sense, the Warriors Hall testifies about the numerous delicate war memories about the 1912–1918 period. The construction of the Warriors Hall started in 1930 and was officially opened in 1932. The main argument of the article is that the veterans of the old Serbian Royal Army were keen to maintain the memories of the Serbian participation in the war. Consequently, it can be argued that this process was conflicting with the supranational Yugoslav identity.
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After liberation, the Yugoslav state had a big problem on the border front with Albania, because of frequent attacks of Albanians, who were supported by Italy. In order to defend the border, in 1919 the state established Battalions of Organized Albanians. These Battalions were under the command of Esad Pasha Toptani. Problems at the border occurred at the time of the Paris Peace Conference, when Albanians fought a diplomatic battle to fulfill their territorial demands. In the field, struggles were waged at all points on the left bank of the Drim River. Although the members of the Battalions of Organized Albanians fought together with the Yugoslav army, they did not meet the expectations of the Yugoslav authorities. Anarchy, indiscipline, breaking of promises, black market, robbery, frequent defections to the side of Italy – were everyday behavior of fighters involved in the Battalions of Organized Albanians. The state granted credit to pay the members of the Battalions, but the payments were often delayed, so this was also one of the reasons for the lack of discipline. The fact that the activities of the Battalions compromised the Yugoslav state, demanded their disbanding, but the authorities feared that this would provoke even more anarchy, so it frantically tried to keep them under control.
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Међународна конференција “War, Revolution, Civil war: Eastern Europe 1917–1923“, Даблин, Република Ирска, 5–26 март 2011. године / International conference “War, Revolution, Civil War: Eastern Europe 1917–1923”, Dublin, Republic of Ireland, 25–26 of March 2011
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This description of an extended family called zadruga, of relatively late date, presents the results of field work in the village of Jovići in the Dalmatian hinterland near Zadar, conducted between the years of 2000 and 2003. The results achieved by the use of interviews collected memories of the oldest living inhabitants, reconstructing the structure, function, and every day life of a family zadruga (called Banovi after the paterfamilias called Ban) between the years of 1910 and 1937. This large family which numbered as many as 54 members at the time of their division in 1937, presents a rather late example of once very common form of family amongst the Southern Slavs. Giving some historical notions about the settlement of the Jovići clan in their present-day settlement, the author aims to reconstruct the everyday life of the family in the period when most of the families in the region had already divided. Description, statistical facts concerning house economy, and insights into the interpersonal relations amongst the members of zadruga and the outer world, comprise the central part of the text. Being the descendants of the pastoral populations that settled in this region during the 17th century, the Jovići depended equally on sheep breeding and agriculture till the end of the 19th century. Through constant contacts with the outer world, the head of the family introduced many technical innovations during the 1910s. Alongside traditional occupations, the Banovi started to fish, sell wine and do the seasonal work. The money earned during one members' stay in the USA contributed toward a large number of their possessions. This research, based on oral accounts by the informants and scarcely backed up by written documents, gives an overall picture and basic facts concerning this particular family. Admitting that the results of the research present no more than crude data, and having no pretensions to analyse them to a deeper extent, the author underlines a good material starting point, preservation of manpower during the First World War and Spanish fever, the importance of the strong personality of the head of the family, and good human relations as the most important reasons for the long survival of this archaic form of family life. Author concludes that the major causes for the division were the growing numbers of the members, centripetal tensions caused by the growth of private property, and (not just on the symbolic level) the death of Ban, the head of the zadruga, in 1936.
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The army, as factor of modernization, affected the city on various levels. Above all, due to needs of modern warfare, demands of military authorities for cooperation with industrial companies were increased. In connection with that, the incentive of the Army towards the civil structures proved to be really significant for such undeveloped city as Nis. Of particularly visible trace was the functioning of the Institute for making military uniforms, which was able to employ an equal number of workers in the city, as all other companies together, even in the years of economic crisis. Significant activities were done in connection with procurements for the garrison, out of which we can particularly single out making use of bigger flour mills in the city. Besides, considering the Army as participant in modernization of the city and its institutions, we have to mention also their activities on construction of modern railway and road networks, important not only for supply of the garrison of Nis, but also for the surrounding garrisons, as well as construction of facilities in the city itself and its surroundings. The contribution of the Army to improvement of literacy was also significant (in certain periods it even went ahead of civilian institutions), if we take into consideration very low cultural level of the population, which was directly reflected on the condition of the units which often had up to 30– 50% of illiterate soldiers.
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Prikaz/The review of: Милић Милићевић, Здравко Петровић, Официрска задруга и систем осигурања живота у Србији и Југославији (до 1941. године), Службени гласник, Историјски институт, Београд, 2011, 130.
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During the period from 1804 to 1940, nutrition of Serbian hence yugoslаv army has been significantly improved in organizational, qualitative and quantitative aspects. The beginning was „in its own clothing and bread“, up to the modern organizated system of nutrition, from delivering to food preparation in the kitchen of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The most important factor, which had the greatest influence on the quality of organization of nutrition are economic possibilities of the countries in question which gave their army maximum in the given circumstances.
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After coup d’état in Bulgaria, 9 June 1923, and murder of Alexander Stamboliyski Yugoslav statesmen were convinced that members of the BANU were true supporters of South Slavs idea. They have decided to support Bulgarian Agrarian emigration and use them for the purposes of Yugoslav Foreign Policy. Ministry of Foreign Affairs saw strengthening international positions of Yugoslavia through BANU’s seizure of power in Bulgaria. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Chief General Staff were primarily considering possibilities to exploit agrarian emigration’s armed forces in combats against members of IMRO. Cooperation between BANU and BCP had placed Kingdom S.C.S. in ambivalent position. On one side, it supported Bulgarian communists as allies of Bulgarian agrarians in their struggle against regime of Alexander Tzankoff and King Boris III. In the same time, states authorities were alerted by contacts between Bulgarian communists and U.S.S.R., Comintern, members of CPY and information on existing plans for conduct of peasant-workers’ revolutions in the Balkans with aim to form peasant-soviet republics. Internal situation which was mainly burden with Serbian-Croat dispute was further more complicating Yugoslav government’s position when CRAP joined Peasant International in Moscow. Momentarily improvement in Yugoslav-Italian relations, throughout 1924, which has strengthened Yugoslav position in the Balkans and Danube basin, affected on more cautious work of government in Belgrade. While Italians have advised Hungarians and Bulgarians to abandon temporarily or for good illegal activities, Kingdom S.C.S. became circumspect in order not to arise European public with open support to Bulgarian emigrants. This change of state authority’s attitudes probably had more affected on canceling plans for Coup d’état in Bulgaria, than incident which has occurred between Bulgarian emigrants in camp outside Nish and was used to justify failure to fulfill obligations toward BANU and BCP. After May 1925, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Voyislav Marinkovich have continued their relations with emigrants group Obboff-Todoroff and Lt Colonel Tanasiye Dinich with supporters of Atanasoff-Stoyanoff.
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Huge antagonisms in Yugoslav society were extremely visible on examples of education systems and level of literacy of its population. Even after 10 years of life in common state differences remained, while existing educational system proved to be immature to resolve existing problems. Idea to perform literacy of male population during their military service was conceived in 1923 however it was not implemented immediately. Ten years after a five year long program of literacy was initiated in garrisons throughout the country although it proved to be difficult due to the ongoing economic crisis. Successfulness of this program can be seen on the example of literacy of Royal Guards recruits in years 1933 till 1937. In five years 2.600 recruits went through this program with 94% of those who finished it with success. Three quarters of them were from Vardar, Morava and Vrbas banovine, which together with Zeta banovina encompassed majority of illiterate population. Eventually this program contributed in reducing of percentage of illiterate population. If the achieved results would be used on the state level we could conclude that program was successful although the exact changes in the percentage of illiterate population can not be determined precisely because planned census of 1941 was never held due to the outbreak of war.
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Based on unpublished archival records, interwar and collaborationists’ press, and historical articles of Serbian and European origin, this article represents an analysis of the Anti-Masonic exhibition in occupied Belgrade, with a special focus on its origin and organization. This article also places the Belgrade exhibition in its historical context by comparing it with anti-Masonic propaganda in Vichy France and occupied Belgium. Since they came to power in Germany, the Nazis conducted a cruel and aggressive campaign against elements of internationalism: Jews, Free Masons, and Communists. Nazi policies were, by the end of 1930s and in the second half of 1940, exported to occupied countries, allies of the Axis, as well as to to weak, neutral countries of southeast Europe. A great public Anti-Masonic propaganda wave in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia started in July 1940, under the political influence of Nazi Germany, which pressured Yugoslavia to join the Axis. Several leading protagonists of that campaign, including Dr. Lazar Prokić and Stevan Kluić, were involved in organizing an Anti-Masonic exhibition in Belgrade during the World War II occupation. The exhibition was held in the former great lodge “Yugoslavia” building and it was one of the greatest achievements of collaborationists’ propaganda. Some 80,000 people visited the exhibition that was officially opened from 22 October 1941 until 19 January 1942. The concept of the Belgrade exhibition was similar to those Anti-Masonic exhibitions held in occupied Paris and Brussels, simultaneously targeting Free Masons, Jews, and Communists. The intense struggle of collaborationists’ forces with the insurgents in Serbia during the autumn and winter of 1941 reinforced the propaganda role of the Anti-Masonic exhibition. The exhibition inspired hundreds of vehement anti-Semitic and anti-Communist articles published in the collaborationists’ press. Historical sources and comparative analysis have shown that the main initiators and benefactors of the Belgrade Anti-Masonic exhibition were the Germans, while the organization and propaganda work were left to the radical collaborationists, such as Prokić, who had been supporters of Nazism long before the war and had cooperated with the German secret services.
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In 1919, promoting international conciliation the Carnegie Endowment undertook reconstruction in urban areas throughout Europe and financed the building of large libraries in Yugoslavia, Belgium and France. The concern for civilians in warfare, one objective of the Endowment was taken further by addressing their situation in the complex postwar context targeting public opinion appreciated as a potential force that needed to be educated to prevent future conflicts. Drawing from the Carnegie archives, the paper follows the triple libraries project up to the official openings in 1926-1928. Overall, the paper describes the Carnegie Endowment’s success in defining, constructing and organizing education based reconstruction projects in the regional city of Reims, the university city of Leuven and the capital city of Belgrade.
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The Yugoslav government hired Albanian mercenaries and emigrants to stabilize the troubled border with Albania. Individuals who collaborated with the Yugoslav authorities were criminals, who used the situation to carry out their jobs, and anti-Yugoslav Albanian agents. The big problem was represented by frequent incursions of outlaws across the Yugoslav-Albanian border, robbing and smuggling weapons. The Yugoslav authorities only partially solved this problem in 1924, and because of the tribal solidarity of Kosovo Albanians and the power of idea of a Greater Albania, Albanian irredentism erupted during the period before World War II. Groups of ”kačaks” actively operated their shares from the beginning 1930 with the support of Italy. Almost every day thereafter, illegal border crossings and frequent clashes with the Yugoslav gеndarmeriе took place. It was necessary to solve the issue of regulating the border zone, as well as its provision by the divisional border areas.
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