„Verlaine’i revolvri” poeetikast ja retoorikast
Review of: Kristjan Haljak. Verlaine’i revolver. Tallinn: Tuum, 2018. 96 lk.
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Review of: Kristjan Haljak. Verlaine’i revolver. Tallinn: Tuum, 2018. 96 lk.
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The theory of argumentation is based on the ancient theory of proof and argument. It has developed as an interdisciplinary field of philosophical knowledge; some authors define it as a new philosophical science. Philosophers, logicians, rhetoricians, psychologists, linguists and ethicists deal with the issues in this scientific field. The theory of argumentation developed by Ch. Perelman, L. Olbrechts-Tyteca and their followers is called “new rhetoric”. The argumentation theory covers all oral and written genres. Philosophical argumentation “permeates” (Perelman) argumentation in all oral and written discourse. Rhetorical genera and species have strictly established specifics in argumentation, which are analyzed by rhetoric. Argumentation in oratory discourses is a global issue between argumentation theory and modern rhetoric. Nowadays, we live in an age in which there is reason to speak of a renaissance of rhetoric as the following ancient ideal is being revived: a good orator is a good citizen, and a good citizen is a good orator. The courage to take a personal stance that you stand for in certain circumstances sometimes costs a person’s career or life. Correct argumentation is to prove truths and form beliefs without false statements. Ch. Perelman and L. Tyteca appeal to good orators to present correct argumentation aimed at truth and expediency for the benefit of the people.
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Kõigepealt lubage teid õnnitleda, et te olete Ülikooli seinte vahel ja meie ühise töö alguse puhul. Ülikooliharidus nagu igasugune kõrgem haridus on samm edasi võrreldes keskkooliga. Ja üks selle astme eripärasid on, et siin ei ole enam ülemaid ja alamaid – õpetajaid ja õpilasi – vaid siin on kõik kolleegid, st inimesed, kes töötavad koos. Kõrgema õppeasutuse töö põhimõte on koostöö, st kui ühed tahavad õppida ja teised aitavad neid selles. Sundus, kohustuslik “vägivaldne” kontroll jäid madalamale astmele. Ka õppejõudude suhtumine teisse saab olema teistsugune. See on kolleegi suhe nooremasse kolleegi. See aga ei tähenda, et saab olema kerge, vaid et läheb raskemaks. Ja üldse, midagi kerget hea asja puhul olla ei saa. See saab olema raske, sest pole karmimat kontrollijat kui inimene ise (kui ei ole sellist sisemist kontrolli, ei saa olla ka kõrgharidust). Tõsi, ei ole sellist piiri, mis eraldaks meis lapsepõlve, seejärel nooruse… Nii keskkooli kui ka lapsepõlve elemendid tungivad tihti ülikooli: pole vaja teha saladust, et mõned üliõpilased ütlevad teistele ette ja näevad isegi teatud väljakutset selles, et vähem õppida ja saada paremaid hindeid. See on koolilik lähenemine ja on normaalne vaid omas ajas: “On naeruväärne tuulepäine vanur, on naeruväärne ka soliidne noormees”.
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This work aims to discuss the place of tashbeeh (simile) in bayaan science through its manifestation in classical writings. Bayaan science is one of the sub-branches of balagha science. In general, the science of bayaan deals with figurative speeches and how to deduce the secondary meanings of words. Tasbeeh is one of the expression types of bayaan science. However, there is uncertainty about its placement within bayaan, for tashbeeh is not a type of expression that has a secondary meaning. We will try to figure out the classical scholar's points of view on this issue by utilizing the classical descriptions of tasbeeh and majaaz (metaphor) terms. Information on the distinctive features of the science of bayaan will be our other source of data to be utilized. Our main hypothesis is this: the science of bayaan is based on the distinction between metaphor and the literal meaning, and its main subject is statements based on inference.
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There is no doubt that commonplaces, so called topoi, or loci, played a very important role both in the ancient rhetorical theory and in practice. They conform to the main part of invention in the rhetorical treatises, such as Rhetorica ad Herennium, Cicero’s De Inventione, Topica etc., and they enable an orator to develop his argument in any desirable direction (in utramque partem), and sometimes become the main tool of rhetorical strategy. In his Orator, Cicero claims, that an accomplished speaker, whom he tries to delineate as an ideal, will be perfectly familiar with commonplaces and be able to treat them critically and manipulate according to his purposes. In this paper, on the ground Cicero’s Verrine speeches, I shall analyze how the orator predicts his opponents’ topoi and presents them in a different light, and by criticizing or even by mocking them, he diminishes them in order to strengthen his own arguments. In some cases, e.g. in the Fifth Book of the Actio secunda in Verrem (Verr. 2.5), this becomes the main strategy of speech, and corresponds to the methods delineated in the Orator 49.
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It is a requirement for the word to be eloquent that the sentence should be in accordance with the muqtadā al-hal (as occasion requires) and the words mentioned and the meaning should be equivalent to each other. Sometimes the word can be extended for reasons such as making it easier for the interlocutor to understand, and sometimes placing the word in the mind well, and many words may mean less. Sometimes, the word can be expressed in concisely, to make an effective speech, taking into account the situation of the collocutor, and prompting the collocutor to think and research. Therefore, an ījāz (concision) expression can be used to obtain many meanings with a few words. Expression with ījāz, which manifests itself in writings, apologizing, condolence, intimidation, threat, thanks and forgiveness, has also been frequently used in literary and sacred texts. This style of expression can sometimes be obtained by removing some elements of the sentence (hazf), and sometimes by without removing the sentence elements. In ījāz expression, which is preferred because it is short and effective, the ījāz expression should not be far from expressing the meaning to be given, it should be complete and understandable, and it should have a beautiful expression. Since there will be no complexity in the sentence when words are removed based on a clue, removing the words from the sentence does not harm the value of the sentence. It is possible to use ījāz narration for reasons such as ensuring the interlocutor's adaptation to the issue easily, hiding the situation from others, obtaining more meaning with few words, drawing attention to or briefly explaining what is more valuable and important. Intensifying the expression, beautifying it and giving it sweetness, activating the world of feeling and thought of the interlocutor, drawing attention to the issue that is most important, for semantics width in the expressions by leaving the understanding of them to the interpretation of the interlocutor without mentioning some points, and adding a visual beauty to the wording, besides all these, idiomatic sentences proves to be of great value. For this reason, while each of the expressions with the itnāb (prolixity), musāwāt (equating) and ījāz has a value according to its place, it can be said that the most valuable one is the one with ījāz due to its undeniable effect on people. In this study, in which we deal with all aspects of ījāz narration, it is aimed to reveal the different types of ījāz, the reasons, conditions and value of ījāz by examining the issue in the example of Qur'anic verses.
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In the last century, many studies on rhetoric have been carried out in Arab countries and these studies are similar to rhetoric books written in the classical period in terms of content and examples. Jawāhir al-Balāgha, one of the important rhetoric books in the modern period, was written by the Egyptian scholar and linguist Aḥmad al-Hāshimī (d. 1943) and was used as a textbook in various educational institutions. Hāshimī, who followed the theology and philosophy school of Abū Yaʿqūb al-Sakkākī (d. 626/1229) and Khaṭīb al-Qazwīnī (d. 739/1338) in his book, divided the science of rhetoric (balāgha) into three parts as ma‘ānī, bayān, and badī‘. Many recent rhetoric authors have also classified the science of rhetoric in the same way. In this study, the samples of Aḥmad al-Hāshimī’s Jawāhir al-Balāgha book related to the fasāḥa-balāgha Concepts and ilm al-ma‘ānī were examined and comparisons were made on the similarity of the Qur’anic verses and Arabic poems used by the author with the examples of Sakkākī and Khaṭīb al-Qazwīnī. In the comparison, it has been determined that some examples in the fasāḥa-balāgha Concepts and ilm al-ma‘ānī are used not only by Hāshimī, but also by recent Arab rhetoric writers such as ʿAbdul‘azīz ʿAtīq (d. 1976), Aḥmad Maṭlūb (d. 2018) and Faḍl Ḥasan ʿAbbās (d. 2011). In addition, the authors who used the same examples, except for Aḥmad al-Hāshimī, are pointed out with footnotes.
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From ancient times, the oratorical art (ars bene dicendi) affirms itself as an essential component of society. Being an instrument for politicians, jurists and more, the ability to communicate became an indispensable aptitude. Naturally, intellectuals gradually started to show interest for this art from a methodological perspective, starting schools of rhetoric and theorizing the knowledge on the subject. Therefore, by evoking the most important figures of oratory and exploring the theory behind this art, we analyzed its development until it reached the form it has in present times, with a particular interest for the judicial component of oratory, the lawyer`s plead.
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Usually, we read news to form opinions and expand our knowledge. However, especially in the past years, more and more publications are moving apart from being objective. Therefore, we get biased knowledge. In this article, we aim to observe the way information is passed from a logical and rhetorical point of view in different publications. By this, we do not aim to evaluate the morality of the publications or journalists in questions, our aim is purely theoretical (i.e. logical and rhetorical). In order to be able to provide such an analysis, we picked different pieces of news with the same topic from various publications . The chosen topic is irrelevant to the theoretical content, therefore we do not aim to focus on its political or social implications. The decision was made in order to have sufficient material to provide a proper theoretical analysis. It should also be added that any evaluative terms that are going to be used in this article (e.g. ‘biased’, ‘subjective’, ‘not objective’, ‘one-sided’, etc.) are strictly directed to a theoretical perspective, not a moral, social or political one. As already mentioned, our aim is as theoretical as possible: we are interested in the logical and rhetorical structure of a piece of information.
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Background: Ambitious narratives are being produced in Albanian literature usually by young writers who are making a name for themselves and are being honoured for their works by juries and the media alike. However, their ambition, being the drive behind their thematic works, is equally a challenge to rise to. Purpose: This article aims at analysing the reasons for failing to fulfil the literary ambition, as well as to clearly delineate the contribution of such works in their mission as literary narratives. Method: I have chosen to apply rhetorical analysis as developed principally by James Phelan on a tale by the young Albanian writer Loer Kume, for which he was honoured with a prestigious prize in literature, the “Kadare Prize” in 2019. Conclusion: Foregrounding of thematic interest in literature, such as that relating to our attitude to morality, fails to convince the readers when offered with too much guidance and becomes an aesthetic liability.
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From Aristotel who has studied metaphor as a decorated speech to modern (cognitive) theories where metaphor is described as a mediator of abstract concepts, metaphor remains a mean of enriching the language. Metaphor also shows connection between language and man’s sensory experience of the world and is a product of man’s literary mind. Assuming that metaphor really is a product of interaction between human mind, corporeality and complex concepts of the human world, it can be studied as a fundamental feature of language expression, in literary and everyday communication. Metaphor points to the sensory foundations of human understanding of the world and man’s efforts to explain the categories of this world linking the known with unknown, simple with complex and concrete to abstract. This is how metaphor provides a language dynamics. Everyday language of public communication (media, politics) contains various metaphors in the range from conceptual metaphore to richly decorated figures of speech. Some of them tend to make the speech more understandable, while other exaggerate the meaning. Frequent appearance of certain metaphorical circuits in a public speech can produce the opposite effect and impoverish the meaning (empty phrases). In this case, the metaphor becomes an end in itself, does not recall additional meaning or associate abundance of meaning contained in its expression. The aim of this study is to discover this kind of metaphor, describe the manner of its functioning and compare it with the conceptual metaphor to which it oppones as a language structure without a deeper meaning.
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The paper will analyze the polemics on linguistic topics in the second half of the twentieth century from a linguistic (especially pragmalinguistic) point of view. This period was marked by very heated debates about orthographic issues of the Croatian language, which is why we consider them particularly interesting in the context of discovering the rhetorical potential of linguistic choices. In contemporary linguistic and stylistic research, polemics are underrepresented, but their significance, especially in terms of their potential to entice critical thought about language and scientific theses, is unquestionable. Polemic is viewed as a specific discourse type in which the relationship between polemicists is especially emphasized (even more than the subject being polemicized), so special attention is paid to those language constructions that polemicists use to convince the general public of the correctness of their positions. In other words, we will particularly be interested in those nouns (for example, adjectives) and constructions that polemicists use in order to present the opponent in a negative context and gain the favor of the wider (and especially the academic) community. In this manner, the research will lead us to a conclusion about the subjectivity and emotional coloring of the expression, which conflicts with the requirement for the scientific foundation of arguments and the determinants of the traditionally understood scientific style in general.
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Revire of: Rein Undusk. The Rhetoric of Culture. The Case of Infinity. (oxymora 7.) Tallinn: Under and Tuglas Literature Centre, 2022. 308 lk.
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For Aristotle, rhetoric is more an art of identifying means of persuasion for each situation than an art of persuasion as such. Where demonstration is not possible, in order to deal with a polemic debate, the rhetoric brings with it all the means necessary for persuasion in a particular case, in a particular situation. Practiced by sophists, in the eristic version, dialectics translates into an art of permanent controversy, which ended imposing the fallacy of falsity. For Socrates, then for Plato, dialectics is found in the exclusive service of truth (alethes), becoming the very method of philosophy. For Aristotle, dialectics is distinguished by both the philosophical and the scientific demonstration, because it regards both the probable (endoxa) and the eristic of sophists, because its judgments are constructed in a rigorous manner, strictly following the logical rules. Thus, "rhetoric is the corresponding (antistrophos) of dialectic."Thus, both dialectic and rhetoric, can distinguish the truth of appearance: dialectics distinguishes true syllogism from sophistry, and rhetoric, true persuasion from deception. If formally, rhetoric is antistrophos of dialectics, from the perspective of its content, its sphere of application is related to ethics and politics. Thus, dialectics is a rational approach, which, among its possible applications, involves rhetoric. If dialectics sometimes demonstrates "only in appearance", rhetoric is not intended to support a thesis, but to defend a cause that concerns the legal, political, or ethical destiny of the people. That is why, instead of a constantly inescapable evidence, rhetoric must take into account the plausible.
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The article provides an understanding of the contribution of the main approaches to decision-making in legal argumentation through a brief overview of the main concepts related to its object. It is substantiated that the concept of «point of view» as an object of argumentation in the legal context is not the same as the concept of «conclusion», «claim», «proposal», «separate opinion of the judge».
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Exposé is one of the most important political texts in Poland. The program speech contains key information regarding the plans of the new government for the term of office. With the development of political marketing and the role of the media in Poland, the exposé has become a form of communication not only as a message of programming, but also of image. The purpose of this article is to study the changes in the readability of the program speech in the 1989–2019 period. It is now possible thanks to the Jasnopis tool developed by Włodzimierz Gruszczyński’s team. It uses the experience of American and Polish researchers regarding the analysis of the level of text readability, including the formulas developed by Robert Gunning and Walery Pisarek. The evolution of the exposé, and above all the process of simplifying program speech, has not yet been described in the literature. This article is an attempt to describe the research on the readability of the text and to indicate the changes in the exposé and their reasons.
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Review of: Władysława Bryła, Agnieszka Bryła-Cruz, Retoryka „okołowirusowa”. Szkice językowo-kulturowe, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2021, ss. 169
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The rhetoric art of Aristotel is based on two types of proofs: logical (entimema and example) and moral, subjective, (the character of the speaker and the pathos of audience). Thus, the ternary ethos-pathos- logos, uttered by Aristotel, as part of rhetoric is a civic art because is practice by citizens for citizens. The inner dialectic of rhetoric, between the act of prevailing and the effect of being prevailed, is grounded on the named adjective that serves as the signification of pistis: worthy of trust – for the rhetorician, compelling for the hearer. This grounding in ethos, for Aristotel, dose not sends to the technical aspect of rhetoric, but foremost to the entire art of rhetoric understood as civic art. Thus, for the rhetorical discourse ethos is a civic proof because without the trust of the hearer and without the assumed responsibility of the speaker rhetoric is only technical, productive, but not practical.
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In the Italian academic discourse research, Master’s degree theses used to be studied mainly from the perspective of linguistic competencies of their authors. However, strictly linguistic skills are not the only challenge for undergraduate, who must also convey intellectual content in appropriate discursive and rhetorical forms. The paper explores the patterns of a peculiar form of “collaborative writing”, i.e. the cooperation between the thesis supervisor and the student. Using the example of Master’s theses in linguistics, written in Italian as a foreign language, three basic didactic approaches are discussed in the paper. In the didactics of content the supervisors emphasize knowledge, i.e. linguistic concepts expected to be applied in a Master’s thesis. In the didactics of forms, the supervisors focus on the linguistic code, that is, on grammatical and lexical correctness of the Master’s thesis. In the didactics of forms of content the supervisors use regularities observed in academic discourse, such as genre and rhetorical structures, as valuable teaching resources likely to help students develop metacommunicative awareness.
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The article performs an analysis of 46th USA President’s inaugural speech in the spirit of Neo-Aristotelian concepts. The article also contains an analysis of inaugural speech genre, matching Joe Biden’s case as a hybrid, and analyses elocutio and the way the speaker claims the space of communication. The article also refers to Aristotle’s concept of ethos.
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