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The anthropogenic activity creates a significant negative impact on the steppe biome of the Earth. Eurasian steppe is one of the most altered by human economic activity, particularly in Russia. These changes are especially vividly manifested in the Russian Plain, the old-developed territory of Russia. The most substantial damage on steppe landscapes of the Russian Plain was caused by the extensive agricultural use of natural grasslands, especially in the second half of the 20th century. The overwhelming majority of natural steppe landscapes are replaced here by agricultural landscapes which threaten the preservation of the unique soil,biological and landscape diversity of steppes. The main goal of the article is to analyze the current geoecologicalsituation in the steppe zone of the Russian Plain from the regional aspect: by the example of its south-eastern part attributed to the Volgograd region. The described territory is characterized by the extraordinary landscape diversity and located within forest-steppe, steppe and semi-desert natural zones. The article deals with the analysis of the current agricultural structure in the south-east of the Russian Plain within Volgograd Region, of major geoecological consequences of economic activity typical of different types of agricultural lands, and also of pressing problems related to the preservation of the landscape, and of the biodiversity of steppe landscape. The results of this research are necessary to make decisions aimed at optimizing agriculture, at raising the quality of steppe landscape preservation, and at organizing ecologically-conscious recreational activity to preserve the unique variety of steppe landscapes.
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Renewable energy sources (RES) have the possibility to regenerate in a shorter time interval than the non-renewable energy sources and that is why they have always been the subject of interest, especially in the last decades. The Republic of Serbia has RES in the form of solar, wind, the power of water flow, geothermal heat, and biomass. The scientific research conducted in July 2016 in Temska village (City of Pirot) aimed to assessinhabitants’ attitudes and awareness of using RES. By interviewing 167 respondents, it is concluded that inhabitants do not have sufficient knowledge of quality and information on RES. Mostly, they are familiar with all terms: hydropower, solar, wind and geothermal energy (over 80%), and the term of biomass energy as well(70.7%). There is an extremely high level of misinformation about the RES subventions that are provided by the government of the Republic of Serbia (up to 85.6% of respondents are not informed). These subventions are published in the Regulation on incentive measures for the production of electricity from RES and are based on the Feed-in Tariff system that is defined as non-refundable financial assistance from the state. A small number of respondents use RES, but a considerable number (21.6% ‘yes’ and 47.3% ‘maybe’) that does not use RES is interested, or already planning to use it in the future.
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Waterfalls are natural objects created during the lithological and topographic changes in the river bed where the water flows. The constituent elements of the waterfall are the water mass, the height of the fall and the number of steps through which the water flow passes. Albania has a significant number of waterfalls as a result of high tectonic activity, lithological diversity and climate change. Quite popular are the waterfalls created on limestone rocks in contact with terrigenous rocks, or in magmatic rocks, like: waterfall of Thethi, waterfall of Pocesta, waterfall of Pashtura, waterfall of Sopoti, waterfall of Kardhikaqi, waterfall of Ramica ect. The volume of water flow is determined by the Mediterranean rainfall regime and the impact of the continental climate. Waterfalls are among the most beautiful parts of nature and have consistently served as tourist attractions. In order to preserve scientific and aesthetic values and to enable sustainable development, some of the waterfalls are legally and institutionally protected, including them in the Protected Areas. Açording to the IUCN classification (International Union for Conservation of Nature), waterfalls have been categorized as hydromonuments, a subcategory of Natural Monuments. Through the ArcGIS 10.1 program we have created a geodatabase with 10 waterfalls, which maintain the status of hydromonuments. Geoinformation includes data on geographical coordinates, geographical position in relation to administrative and territorial divisions, relations to watersheds, to physical and geographical units and altitude above sea level. Based on the International System of Waterfall Classification, based on their length, width, volume and angle of the falling water, the typologies of waterfalls have been determined. By presenting the attractive and infrastructural elements of the waterfalls, we can determine future opportunities for the development of touristic activities. One form of tourism which has experienced development in the recent decades is geotourism, as part of natural tourism. Geotourism aims to give scientific information, educating, inspiring artists, increasing the sensitivity related to that place, increasing the quality of the environment and ensuring its protection. Other waterfalls have been proposed lately to be added to the list of hydromonuments such as waterfall of Bogova, Gostima, Siqeca, Gjecajve, Therma, Brashta and Përçit i Keçit, which requires the necessity for continuing studies in the future. In order to facilitate geotourism, it is important to identify infrastructural issues and provide suggestions for their solution
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Even if we were to stop emitting green house gasses this moment, we have already committed to 2m of sea level rise in the future due to the lag of sea level rise response to warming. This means that each year we continue to emit mass amounts of greenhouse gasses, that inevitable number will rise, the average level of the ocean is increasing at an unprecedented rate due to anthropogenic forcing. There are two major uncertainties associated with rise, one is the amount of greenhouse gas emissions (RCPs), and another is the likelihood of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets melting. Though scientists are able to make predictions through simulation, it is unknown how fast they will break apart (Velicogna 2018).As communities are threatened by climate change, so are the baylands and their wildlife. Although a few feet of sea level rise may not sound threatening, one meter of rise can affect ecosystems hundreds of meters inland depending on surface slope. Reduced sediment, warmer temperatures, and storm surge will have a detrimental effect on habitat. Restoration practices can be used to increase the Bay's vitality, but rebuilding or protecting development could potentially cost billions of dollars (Velicogna 2018). Many stakeholders are discouraged by short term upfront cost for investment in protection, rather than focusing on long term benefit and avoiding damage expenditure. When choosing a course of action there will be tradeoffs between competing uses, near and long term benefits, and which ecosystems will be protected. Successful implementation will be made possible through adaptive management, the process of learning by doing and utilizing the results to improve tactics. An action strategy for the Bay in the long term will need to focus more on restoring transition zones and realigning levees as well as public outreach (Sea Level Rise Guide, 2018).
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The article deals with the phenomenon of the gradual modification and the slow decay of the typical Slovak mountain country. It emerges from the personal experiences of the author – an active tourist, it maps geographical specifics and looks for the ‟cultural” traces of the natural interconnection of human activities with natural surroundings in the past and nowadays. The article venerates the work of our ancestors, the simple and hard way of life, laborious provision of daily livelihood. It admires fragile and evanescent fragments of esthetic and visual beauty of the just waning world, of the lost country that is vanishing.
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Although there are still some large and stable populations of the European Ground Squirrel, there has been a serious decline in the number and density of most of the species populations throughout its range, including in Bulgaria. The aim of the study is to supplement the scientific data about the population of the European Ground Squirrel and its habitat in Rila National Park, Southwestern Bulgaria. The research was carried out in 2017-2019 in two study areas, each divided into 20 (21) transects (every 100 m long and 5 m wide). The results have shown that the relative population density based on the number of holes tends to decrease in the period of study. The most likely reason for this, and the most significant identified threat to the population of the species in the research area in general, is the observed deterioration of the habitat status.
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The inventory of birds was conducted in the years 2005-2010 on the Vistula River section between Dęblin (km 388 of the river) and Podwierzbie (km 435 of the river). The study area includes a southern section of the European Ecological Natura 2000 Site in Poland PLB140004 "Middle Vistula River Valley” (IBA, PL083). On most areas the Vistula flows here within unregulated or relatively little modified riverbed, having features of a natural, lowland, braided river. Sandy islands and braid bars within a main channel, steep banks and old riparian afforestation create the unique breeding habitats of the Vistula River Valley. Especially the river channel habitats provide suitable breeding sites for many rare bird species, constituting for some of them the key-breeding sites. There are, however, fragments of several kilometres, where people transformed the Vistula River in a more noticeable way (Table 1). These are, among others: an urban section within Dęblin boundaries (km 388 to km 393 of the river), a fragment adjacent to Kozienice Power Plant (km 421 to km 426) and the area, where since 2007 gravel for industry has been mined from the river bottom (km 426 to km 431).The aim of this inventory was the comparison of richness and abundance of breeding bird species linked directly to the river channel in fragments mentioned above. It will allow to estimate soberly how very the intensity of human utilization of the river affects the distribution of avifauna of the Vistula, determining the richness and abundance of valuable and/or endangered species breeding in a given area.In the years 2007-2009 within a whole study area 32 breeding species characteristic for the riverbed and its surroundings were recorded. Among them 6 are threatened in Poland: mew gull (Larus canus), little tern (Sternula albifrons), ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), corncrake (Crex crex) and hoopoe (Upupa epops) (Table 2a, b). The comparison of bird richness revealed significant differences between adjoining fragments of the river (Table 3). Decidedly the most valuable was the section between Wróble and Kozienice Power Plant (km 416-421). The Vistula River flows here within a riverbed only a little changed by man. It has an appearance typical for a large, lowland braided river with meandering channels, network of small side channels, steep banks, sandy bars and different kind of islands. Such differentiated environment is reflected in richness of birds. The association of 27-30 species reached here the total density of 337-397 pairs/km along the river, unparalleled in other habitats (Table 3). The urban section within Dęblin boundaries (km 388-393) and a 5-kilometer-long area of gravel mining (km 426-431) were much less attractive for birds. Straight, much narrower river channel, small number of islands in a main channel and a degraded valley in the vicinity of river banks caused, that only six to ten species nested there, of the total density ranged between 2.0-2.7 pairs/km on the urban fragment and 3.8-6.6 pairs/km within the gravel pit area (Table 3). However, these values are quite high in comparison to those recorded for the fragment adjoining Kozienice Power Plant (km 421-426). The river channel is here clearly contracted and the bottom is deepened. The river flows fast within one channel. Numerous, concrete, submerged groynes, revetments on both sides of the river and a bank made of concrete, protecting a power station are very characteristic for this place. Such a man-made environment almost excludes the possibility of breeding of birds within a riverbed. Only single pairs of lapwings (Vanellus vanellus), common sandpipers (Actitis hypoleucos), little ringed plovers (Charadrius dubius) and goosanders (Mergus merganser) occurred here, sporadically also common terns (Sterna hirundo) (Table 2a,b). The total density was very low and did not exceed 1.5 pairs/km along the river.The yearly surveys of birds in the years previous to and after beginning of a gravel and sand mining from the river bottom allowed to estimate if the development had changed somehow the status of riparian bird populations. During three years of an activity a negative impact of the development on the richness and abundance of bird species was not recorded, both in direct vicinity and on the fragment below (Table 4). Not the small harmfulness of the development finally influences the status and changes of avifauna in these sections, but the place where it is situated. It should be kept in mind that the sand mining takes place only within 2 km of the section of Vistula that is regulated to a large degree, and the section above is almost unavailable for riparian birds (Kozienice Power Station). One can assume with high probability bordering on certainty that when the gravel excavation took place on the fragment between km 393 and km 421 or below km 431 of the river, the negative impact of the development on breeding habitats and avifauna of the river channel would be much more noticeable and worse still – it would be irreversible. Both fragments mentioned above are now unique places, where the bird association characteristic for the unregulated channel of lowland river can be found – the environment, which irrevocably declines due to human activities.
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The study aimed to determine the distribution, numbers, and forms of human activity on the banks and in the riverbed of the middle part of the Vistula River. This section of the river is the most valuable for nature and is located between Puławy and the mouth of the Pilica River (km 373-548 of the navigation route). Censuses were conducted in May-June 2014 and 2015, the breeding season of the key species of the riverbed avifauna. The presence and different forms of human activity were recorded, including fishing, camping, water tourism, hiking, motorized tourism, and grazing animals. The frequent presence of people on the Vistula River was much greater in June than in May. In both months, the most popular form of spending time by humans in the riverbed was fishing. While in areas less valuable for birds, fishing strongly dominated, on parts of the river with key breeding habitats for birds, more aggressive forms of recreation, camping and motorized tourism (quads, motorcycles, off-road vehicles), were reported as often or even more frequently. The increasing popularity of these forms of recreation is a very serious threat to the fauna. They not only disturb the breeding birds but also physically destroy breeding habitats and nests with eggs and increase the mortality of chicks of gulls, terns, and other waders.
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The aim of the paper is to provide an evolutionary explanation for co-operation and altruism in the animal world, together with other forms of intra- and inter-species relationships, which bring benefits for both sides involved in it. Concepts of individual selection, group selection, and kin selection were used. The work emphasises the relevance of intra-specific and inter-species relations, in shaping the image of nature. During the analysis of intra-specific interactions, it is explained how the degree of kinship affects the relations between relatives, and what are the results of it, regarding the degree of kinship. The article discusses the notion of kin selection, providing numerous examples in this area. Furthermore, it explains the concept of Hamilton’s rule, which covers these phenomena in a quantitative way. Whilst analysing the possibility of co-operation between non-related individuals of the same species, the authors introduce the notion of reciprocal altruism, and explain a particular way of thinking about the above problems, called the ‘prisoner’s dilemma’. Possible changes that may appear during co-evolution between different species, have also been considered. Examples of co-operation between species that rely on the construction of ecological niches were provided. It has especially been wondered if co-evolution can lead to increased intensity of positive relations between species, up to the manifestations of inter-species altruism inclusive.
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Cyanobacteria are active indicators and test-organisms for the presence in the environment pollutants of different chemical nature. For the first time the impact of three different auto shampoo brands Concentrate, Felix and Uni, related to synthetic surface-active substances (surfactants), on the development and physiological state of the soil cyanobacteria of Nostoc Paludosum is investigated. It is shown that a shampoo Uni is the most toxic substance. Its impact on the cells of Nostoc Paludosum is very deadly; in pure culture the cells’ death rate reached 95.8%. Under the influence of this shampoo in the concentration used for car washing a change in such an indicator of cyanobacterial population as its numerical strength was revealed. The power of the shampoo’s repressive effect increases with its concentration and reaches its maximum at 4 calculated doses.
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The article presents results of the study of the species composition and the structure of mire communities with the participation of Epipactis palustris (L.) Crantz (Orchidaceae) in the middle taiga subzone of the Republic of Karelia. This species are located around northern boundaries of its geographical range and are listed in the regional Red Data Book. The species composition of studied communities consisted of 114 species, including 92 species of vascular plants and 22 species of mosses. The species saturation of the communities varied from 15 to 48 species with the average value 33. Mean (III) and high (IV–V) constancy were characterized for 28 plant species. The determined species composition included plants from ecological-coenotic groups, which are characteristic of eutrophic herbaceous-hypnaceous and spring mires. The studied communities are related to two associations identified by the topological-ecological method applied for Karelian mires. Their species composition was similar to plant communities of the European North of Russia.
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The research results on the changes in the nature of nutrition and growth rate of the mass freshwater fish species (river perch in particular) dwelling in close proximity to trout cages is presented for the first time in the national literature. It was revealed that the linear and weight growth of the river perch living in the zone of cages located in the waters of Lake Vokhtozer increases with their age when compared to the growth index of the fish living in natural conditions. Such index performance resulted from the improvement of the fodder base for lacustrine fish and from their more intensive nutrition. Therefore, nutrition of the river perch in focus consisted not only from the natural fodder, but it also included a significant food addition coming from feeding pellets washed away from trout cages during trout feeding.
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The article considers dynamics of the water temperature and dissolved oxygen in a shallow lake for three consecutive years with noticeably different weather conditions. It is shown that the weather conditions of a particular year determine the duration of the ice season, summer stratification, and intensity of the heat exchange with bottom sediments, and, consequently, the speed of the oxygen uptake in the bottom layers of the lake. The interannual variability of the duration of the biological summer reaches a month period due to high variability of the dates of its beginning. It is shown that against the background of cold autumn and spring months, the duration of the ice formation period increases, while the bottom anoxia exists up to six months. The total decrease of dissolved oxygen in the lake exceeds 50 % during winter time, which can lead to catastrophic consequences for the fish community of the lake. Fracturing of the steady ice at the beginning of winter in conditions of the unusually long warm weather, on the contrary, has a positive effect on the oxygen regime of the winter lake. It helps to reduce the total oxygen consumption up to 30 % and to diminishe the severity of bottom anoxia. The abnormally warm weather at the end of winter together with early spring can provoke early under-ice convection development. These conditions are also facilitative in the formation of direct stratification under the ice cover. The intensification of stratification under ice fracturing in conditions of warm, low-winded weather can significantly worsen oxygen conditions in the bottom layers of the lake in the summer. The summer anoxia is markedly weaker than the winter one. The summer anoxia gets its maximum development in conditions of prolonged stratification of water columns.
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A detailed study of the under-ice zooplankton in Petrozavodsk Bay of Onega Lake was made in the frames of the project “Lake Ladoga: Life under ice” in March of 2015 and 2016. The winter zooplankton was characterized by scarce species composition (24 species) and low quantity (0,5 th. ind./m3 and 0,016 g /m3). The basis of its numerical strength (91 %) and biomass (98 %) was presented by adult copepods and their nauplial stages. The zooplankton biomass in the water column increased with the depth of the water and decreased in the coastal zone. The vertical distribution of zooplankton and its some species has been studied. The zooplankton characteristics significantly differed by years. The phase of convective mixing was observed in 2015; in contrast, in 2016 it was not registered, which was conditioned by the shift in the thermal regime phase. The composition, structure and numerical strength of the studied zooplankton have not changed since the 60s of the last century, which indicates its functioning stability.
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The authors provide a short review of the course of the research of the geomorphological traces of Pleistocene glaciation of Northern and Central Velebit. The results of the research have been published in the Geografski glasnik (Geographic bulletin) and the Senjski zbornik (Senj Almanac).
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The understanding of the collapse of ancient civilizations is important for the understanding of very complex process happening in our civilization. The Earth is put in danger due to many reasons and some of them do not change throughout history. Because of the global range of human actions, the power reached by contemporary man is much more dangerous than it used to be centuries ago. Therefore, the understanding of the past collapses is crucial for the safety of our global village. The article shows the reasons for the collapse of the Greenland Norse civilization. It seems that the main reason was climate change but it also seems that the Greenland Norse could have survived, or at least postponed the collapse. The author indicates that cultural factors were the roots of ecological degradation and the lack of economic adaptation. The Norse knew the Inuit and their adaptive strategies but did not learn from them. It seems that the collapse of the Greenland Norse civilization was the choice of the Norse’s elite. The leaders kept the society in a risky balance in order to rule over them, but finally, the fragile equilibrium was shattered and caused the collapse.
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Results of archaeological studies from the territory of Poland show that prehistorical settlements were often founded on the banks of lakes and mires. Botanical composition of organic deposits allows reconstructing historical plant communities and palaeohydrological conditions of the settlement, the subject of research was a peatland situated in the neighborhood of the archaeological site at Łany Małe. The latter is located on hillslopes of the Kłodnica valley (Upper Silesia, southern Poland). Peat formation at the Łany Małe site took place in the Pre-Boreal Period as an effect of the valley floor paludification. In the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods as well as the Early Bronze Age, swampy alder forests occupied the entire area of the peatland. At that time, the fen surface was relatively easily accessible for humans, especially for people of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Middle Neolithic Period. It was then when, probably, the ground water level dropped down and peat decay processes took over those of peat production. In the Hallstatt Period, during the presence of the Lusatian Culture settlement, there was subsequent increase in biotope moisture. Forest communities became more open and trees were gradually displaced by grasslike plants, especially of sedge (Carex) genus. In the Fate Roman Period (the Przeworsk Culture settlement) and in the early Middle Ages, the peatland was subject to inundation due to frequent flooding, the peat accumulation was then halted by the delivery of fine-grained products of soil erosion.
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Review of: Srećko Božićević, Kamen i voda (Rock and Water)
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The average annual insolation becomes lesser from the coastline toward the top of the mountain and inland Lika's region. In the colder half of the year, the insolation is higher on Zavižan (top of the mountain) than in Gospić (situated in Lika) because of the frequent fog and low overcast. Quite contrary is in the warmer half of the year because of the orographic clouding. The slope aspect and inclination are important for the amount of the sun radiation received and consequently for the thermomechanical destruction of the bare rocky surface. The thermal influence of the sea is limited to the coastline and lower parts of the SW side of Mt.Velebit.In the warm part of the year the warming of the barren carbonate rock surface is responsible for a greater number of warm and hot days on the seaward mountain side. The intense warming influences the thermomechanical destruction at the same time increasing evapotranspiration, which leads to the drought on the lower parts of the SW mountain side. In such conditions the intensity of corrosion and biocorrosion is diminished. During intense droughts it is especially low in the shallow pedological cover prevailing on the coastal and lower parts of SW mountain side. This is confirmed by the new measurements of the corrosion intensity. Corrosion intensity is greatest on the central parts of the SW mountain side, while it is lower towards lower parts and especially lower towards mountain top. Lower and central parts of SW mountain side are characterised by a far greater corrosion intensity in the soil than on the surface. With the increase of the altitude, the temperature on the SW mountain side declines. It, however, declines slower on the lower parts and quicker on the upper parts of the SW mountain side. Mt. Velebit has been also the south and southwest border of the Lika and Gračac plains ("polje"). In winter Lika and Gračac plains become filled up with the cold air, which moves from the inland towards the sea and is stopped by Mt.Velebit. This is often accompanied by clear and calm weather which is the cause of temperature inversions. Thus on the lower parts of the NE mountain side, due to the relief of plains' rim, the decline of the temperature with the increase in altitude in winter time is negligible and sometimes there is an inversion. As regards the annual average, temperature declines slower on the lower parts and faster on the upper parts of the NE mountain side. Temperature differences on the Mt.Velebit can be significant on relatively short distances. This can be observed in vegetation distribution. Criogenic processes as well as mechanical weathering conditioned by low temperatures and great temperature amplitudes are predominant processes in the upper parts of Velebit mountain range. The reason for extremely low corrosion intensity in the soil in the upper parts of Velebit is in physiologica drought conditioned by the high number of cold days, when due to the freezing of water the corrosion stops and the biocorrosion is low (short vegetation period). The whole area of Mt. Velebit has a mediterranean precipitation regime. All the precipitation gauges show a maximum of precipitation in fall, and a secondary maximum in spring. Great fluctuations of monthly precipitation ammounts are characteristic for the investigated area. The difference in the maximum and minimum ammounts of monthly precipitations becomes greater as we move from northern to southern Velebit. With the increase in altitude the difference is diminishing. With the increase of altitude, the total amount of precipitation becomes greater, however not at the same rate everywhere. The slowest increase rate is on the northern Velebit, where the isohyet of 2,000 mm passes approx. at 1,400 m. On the area of Rožanski kukovi and Hajdučki kukovi, there is over 2,000 mm of precipitation. On the central Velebit the annual amount of precipitation is greater and the isohyet of 2,000 mm lowers gradually from 1,500 m on the central part of northern Velebit to 900 m on the SW mountain side, and on the NE side to the bottom of Lika plain ("polje"). The largest amount of precipitation is registered on southern Mt.Velebit tops (Vaganski vrh and Sveto Brdo), where there is approximately 3,500 mm of precipitation yearly. On the NE mountain side, the amount of precipitation is declining as we move away from the mountain top. In the base of NE mountain side there is also some gaining of the amount of precipitation as we move alongside it from NW to SE. Relatively large amount of precipitations as well as their monthly distribution is having a significant influence to the intensity of the corrosion process. The precipitation maximum in autumn and the organic decay of plants have had a significant contribution to the corrosion proces due to the greater concentration of C02 in the soil. However, towards the mountain top the corrosion process diminishes and the criogenic process strenghtens due to the low temperatures and freezing of water. Great importance for the corrosion process has a large amount of additional precipitation, not measwred by normal gauging stations but by totalisators in the highest mountain parts. In such conditions, the corrosion intensity on the surface has been even greater than in the soil. The errosion processes are influenced by the fact that most of the precipitations are usually in the form of short but intensive showers and by the generally great slope inclination favouring surface drainage. The number of days with snow cover as well as its height increase with altitude. The duration of snow cover is considerably longer in the forest areas than ori the open fields, on northern aspected slopes and specially long (often to the second half of July) on the bottom of deep valleys ("dolinas") and on the bases of avalanche fields. In the areas where the slope inclination is over 30 degrees the avalanche are quite often, while on the slopes over 60 degrees snow does not hold but is evacuated downhill immediately. The absence of snow cover on the parts of the mountain top has been the cause of intense mechanical weathering and appearing of periglacial forms. Frost weathering is especially visible on the gravitationaly accumulated rock fragments. On the other hand, snow resting in depressions and rock fissures prolongs the corrosion process. This is notable in widening and deepening of valleys ("dolinas") and depressions ("uvalas") bottoms in the upper mountain parts. Among the prevailing continental winds, the main wind is bora, well known on the SW mountain side (in Senj blows from NE and E, in Karlobag from N, NE and E). While on the seaward mountain side there is bora, in Lika blows norther wind which is often changing direction along the NE side of the mountain and frequently blows as western wind at the foot of the mountain. At the same time, along the top of the mountain, due to relief influence, eastern, northeastern (Baške Oštarije) or northwestern (Zavižan) winds very often blow very strong. The most important maritime winds are scirocco (SE wind) on the coastal part of the SW mountain side and western, southwestern, southern and southeaster winds on the top of the mountain, NE mountain side and in Lika. During the summer frequently blow the sea breezes (in Croatia called maestral), mostly as northwestern and western winds and its direction is modified by the Velebit channel form. Sometimes it is difficult to differ maestral from the daily wind circulation. During the calm eves and nights, especially in the warmer half of the year, often blows strong wind from NE to Sw mountain side because of the temperature differences between them. In winter, similar to bora, it blows the snow away from the mountain top and wind exposed sites on the slopes and builds up snow on leeward sides. On the lower parts of the NE mountain side, winds are less strong and the share of calms is greater. Towards mountain top, the winds are stronger and the number of days with strong and very strong winds is greater. With the prevailing bora, SW mountain side is most windy (especially Senj). In the geologic history, the climatic changes conditioned the change of the paleokarstic relief and the formation of other relief types. The glacial period (Wiirm III) is characterised by the development of glacionival karstic forms in the area above 1,300 m of altitude, while in the lower parts they are mainly stipulated by thermic inversion. The 12 degrees C lower temperatures on the top parts of Velebit favoured the development of glaciers. As the glaciers are developed in the existing valleys ("dolinas") and depressions ("uvalas"), they have reshaped their sides and bottoms.
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