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Metaphysics is analyzed in the context of phenomenology as combination of ontological, theological and logical approach to transcendental objects. A difference between Heidegger’s and Husserl’s approach is justified.
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What is the role of stereotypical thinking and does it have a single mechanism? This article proposes a theoretical framework and an explanation of why thinking in stereotypes has become one of the biggest obstacles to achieving progress and building a just society in Bulgaria, as well as in other countries in transition from socialism to capitalism. Today’s party ideologies, media messages and mass expectations are woven from stereotypes, and that is why the topic is important. This type of thinking is present when the generic concept is identified with one of its species. This analysis also emphasizes the role of stereotypical thinking in dissociating with the great hopes of Bulgarian people for change and a better future, which were strong at the beginning of the transition, but today are on the verge of freezing. They were also the basis of the belief in the civilizational values coming from the West, which were supposed to replace the old backward socialist values of the planned economy and authoritarian socialism. The dream of them and the disappointment that they came to Bulgaria too slowly or even at all caused about 1/5 of the population, mostly young and active people, to look for sustenance and prosperity in the West. At the same time, poverty, social inequalities, and corruption settled in the country.
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The recognition of two-valued logic as a model of correct reasoning has contributed to the popularization of the binary model in ordering and data analysis in various fields of science. In social sciences, this tendency was especially perpetuated by Claude Lévi-Strauss. The recognition of binary schema also included identity, analogous to its definition in two-valued logic, leading to the conclusion that identity is based on difference, i.e. opposition. Data analysis shows the unreliability of such an approach. Identity is formed and consolidated not through a binary opposition, but through deriving from a wide spectrum of possibilities and variants. Therefore, the spectral model seems to be much more useful and accurate in characterizing identity, be it individual or collective.
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The concept of the multiplicity of realities developed by Alfred Schütz constitutes an important part of sociology of knowledge inspired by phenomenological ideas. A special role in this concept is played by the category of the world of everyday life, to which other “finite provinces of meaning” relate. The article is aimed at analyzing the situations in which two worlds (realities) overlap (mix) in people’s experience. At the same time, the obviousness of the world of everyday life is undermined. It is an attempt to apply Schütz’s concept of multiple realities to the analysis of such situations, with particular emphasis on the relationship between the world of everyday life and the world of fiction. Similarly to Schütz, who developed the concept of multiple realities using literary material (the case of Don Quixote), literary material (selected works by Emmanuel Carrère) will be used in this study and an attempt will be made to answer Schütz’s question about how people experience the reality. Selected works by Carrere will be subjected to content analysis, the result of which will be defining the dominant thematic fields, after which Schütz’s categories – constituting the effects of his concept of the multiplicity of realities – will be superimposed on these fields.
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In the article we consider the relationship of traditional provisions of basic logical concepts and confront them with new and modern approaches to the same concepts. Logic is characterized in different ways when it is associated with syllogistics (referential – semantical model of logic) or with symbolic logic (inferential – syntactical model of logic). This is not only a difference in the logical calculation of (1) concepts, (2) statements, and (3) predicates, but this difference also appears in the treatment of the calculative abilities of logical forms, the ontological-referential status of conceptual content and the inferential-categorical status of logical forms. The basic markers or basic ideas that separate ontologically oriented logic from categorically oriented logic are the (1) concept of truth, the (2) concept of meaning, the (3) concept of identity, and the (4) concept of predication. Here, this differences are explicitly demonstrated by the introduction of differential terminology. From this differential methodology follows a new set of characterizations of logic.
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Classical philosophy considers that the metaphysical universe can be in posse and we can produce knowledge about it, but modern thinkers such as Kant and Comte while accepting metaphysics, think we can only access the understanding of the concrete world epistemologically. In the 1920s, members of the movement known as the Vienna School -later known as the “logical positivists”- opposed philosophy’s interest in metaphysics and limited its field of preoccupation with the logical analysis of scientific findings. In this study, we will try to evaluate the British thinker Ayer's original work, titled Language, Truth and Logic, which was written in 1936 and had a great influence in the world of philosophy, through its Turkish translation titled Din, Doğruluk ve Mantık. This work examines the views of Ayer, a representative of the logical positivism and verifiability theory, about the idea of verifiability and analytical/synthetic, moral, and metaphysical propositions holistically.
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The title question of the paper has its empirical origin in the form of an individual’s existential experience arising from the personal use of a computer, which we attempt to describe in the first section. The rest of the entire paper can be understood as a philosophical essay answering the question posed. First the connection between the main problem of the article and its “premonition” by mankind, which was expressed in the form of ancient myths and legends, is briefly suggested. After shortly discussing the problems that early considerations of AI focused on, i.e. whether machines can think at all, we move on to reformulate our title question, about the possibility of outsmarting AI. This outsmarting will be understood by us in a rather limited way as to prevent a machine from completing its implemented task. To achieve this objective, after softly clarifying the basic terms, an analogy is built between the “outsmarting” of a machine by a human (the target domain) and the playing of a mathematical game between two players (the base domain), where this outsmarting is assigned a “winning strategy” in the certain game. This mathematical model is formed by games similar to Banach-Mazur games. The strict theorems of such games are then proved and applied to the target of the analogy. We then draw conclusions and look for counter-examples to our findings. The answer to the title question posed is negative, and it is not clear how far it should be taken seriously.
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Scientific knowledge is acquired according to some paradigm. Galileo wrote that the “book of nature” was written in mathematical language and could not be understood unless one first understood the language and recognized the characters with which it was written. It is argued that Turing planted the seeds of a new paradigm. According to the Turing Paradigm, the “book of nature” is written in algorithmic language, and science aims to learn how the algorithms change the physical, social, and human universe. Some sources of the Turing Paradigm are pointed out, and a few examples of the application of the Turing Paradigm are discussed.
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This text continues a cycle of articles devoted to general topics of scholastic logic in Lithuania. The first article of the cycle (Valatka 2020) investigated the beginning of the above mentioned logic as well as its method and argumentation technique. The second article (Valatka 2021) looked into structure, object and form of this logic. This article is devoted to one of the essential features of that logic, namely, to its eclectic nature. The author of the article focuses on the causes and content of this eclecticism. The article comes to conclusion that such an eclecticism was characteristic of all the disciplines of the Second Scholasticism, including logic, the inseparable part of which was scholastic logic in Lithuania. The main reasons for this eclecticism were the crisis of classical scholasticism and the philosophical, theological, and ideological front of the reformation/counter-reformation battle. However, the eclecticism of scholastic logic was of a rather limited, even isolationist nature. Namely, it did not go beyond the frames of scholastic knowledge – while combining and integrating separate views of various trends of classical scholasticism, this logic completely ignored the ideas and concepts of Renaissance and New Ages’ philosophy and logic.
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The article presents a logical-philosophical reinterpretation of the retrospective nature of artificial intelligence technology in the modern globalized world through the prism of the disclosure of each individual link of the triad. The origin, formation, and further development of the notion of "intelligence" can be traced within the framework of the link “historical retrospective of the evolution and development of the notion of “intelligence”, where we can talk about representatives of the genus Homo (from Homo Habilis, Homo Sapiens to Homo Sapiens Sapiens), whose thinking evolution took place due to the improvement of work tools at each separate stage. The link “philosophical conception of intelligence” made it possible to trace the difference between natural intelligence and artificial intelligence: if natural intelligence is connected with the spiritual world of a human being (Homo Sapiens), which is determined by its natural “substrate”, then artificial intelligence is related to the study of the tasks of the human mind intelligent, which are completely separate and related to the creation of systems of “machine” text recognition, its translation into different languages. The link “modern logical-philosophical reinterpretation of the retrospective of artificial intelligence” is the process of transferring natural reality (neural networks of a human being (Homo Sapiens) to artificial reality (neural networks of an artificial human being (Artificial Homo Sapiens). In addition, an attempt was made to present a hypothetical methodological algorithm of artificial intelligence engineering, which consists of three stages: if the first stage is aimed at describing each component of the triad “brain – thinking / cognitive abilities / consciousness – intelligence”, characteristic of Homo Sapiens, the second stage is aimed at analyzing the work of any robot for the presence of biological, semiotic and other systems in it, which are an imitation of “neural networks” and “mental models”, then the third stage is to simulate weak and strong intelligence.
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The translation of the fourth part of Tractatus de consequentiis (Tractatus de consequentiis) of the French logician John Buridan of the 14th century into the Lithuanian language is presented, carried out as part of the project of research groups "Traditional modal logic research using modern logic theories and information technologies". Scientists participating in this project, prof. Jonas Dagys (VU Institute of Philosophy), dr. Haroldas Giedra (VU Informatics Institute) and dr. Živile Pabijutaitė (VU Institute of Philosophy) sought to determine the relationship between Buridan's modal logic and the widely known and used systems of modern quantum modal logic K, T, S4, S5. In order to answer this question, Buridan's two logical treatises were examined - Treatise on Deductions and Summulae de dialectica, in which he teaches the basics of modal syllogistic, understood as an extension of Aristotle's assertoric syllogistic.
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In the first part, we raise the question of the philosophical setting up by nonprofessional philosophers, and of the scientific concepts posited as starting point of their philosophical interpretation. In the second, we outline some significances of the concept of architecture, as telos in relation with information.
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This is the last part of the book THE SECRET OF GENIALITY (Yerevan, Armenia, Noyan Tapan Printing House, 2002) written by our colleague Robert Djidjian. We published this book not only because we all must know the philosophical research and creation (in our domain of epistemology and philosophy of science and technology) from a wider geographic area than that provided by the established fashion in virtue of both extra–scientific reasons and a yet obsolete manner to communicate and value the research; but also because the book as such is living, challenging and very instructive. The title of the book is suggestive enough to make us to focus on an old problem: the dialectic of the insight, of the discovery – its psychology moving between flashes of intuitions and knowledge stored in memory – and its logic of composition of knowledge from hypotheses to their demonstration and verification. The realm of science is most conducive to the understanding of this dialectic and the constitution of the ideas which are the proofs of what is the most certain for humans: the “world 3”, as Popper called the kingdom of human results of their intellection, and though transient and perishable in both their uniqueness and cosmic fate, the only certain proof of the reason to be of homo sapiens in the frame of multiversal existence. Therefore, the power to create is the secret of the human geniality, and how to create science is a main part of this secret. This last part of the book is that of the Appendix the author added especially in order to highlight the methodology of the scientific discovery and the dialectical principles of both knowledge and the world. Highlighting the big problems or theories as ”mysteries” and elucidating them by revealing the contradictions that lead to new theories and prefigures not only a new basis of understanding but also new problems makes the philosophy of science to appear here exciting as in the research of a detective. The clear explanation of concepts, the unexpected links between domains and between theories of different domains, the impeccable logic of inferences, the sense of humour and the integrative approach where the history of ideas formation is crossed by the red thread of the methodological goal make the reading of – not only this part but – the entire book a useful and enjoyable event for anyone. The book is a tool in the intellectual development so necessary nowadays.
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We publish a relevant paper of Academician Athanase Joja (1904-1972) who subordinated the inherent passion of philosophers, the history of philosophy, to his main professional passion, logic. Athanase Joja has many relevant papers. We chose the present one, about tertium non datur1 , not only because it explains clearly the topic – at the level of the 60s of the 20th century – but also because the topic itself is important in the present context of relativistic manner of the dominant thinking. This relativistic manner was taken over by those who did not know and understand the convergence and unity of the dialectical approach – that “seems” to invite relativism – and the rigour of analysis that always emphasises its criteria and the problem of criteria as such. Put more directly, the rigour of tertium non datur was rejected by the lay supporters of relativism in the name of a vague unity of things, of a “complexity” that cannot be deciphered and on which ground “those who know” can only urge the acceptance of tertium and the avoidance of tertium non datur.
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Review of: A Methodological Remark Starting from Stephen Budiansky‘s Journey to the Edge of Reason: The Life of Kurt Gödel, New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 2021.
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Review of: Landscapes in Logic Vol. I. Contemporary Logic and Computing, Adrian Rezuş, editor; College Publications, London, 2020.
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We continue to publish, in a series, the book THE SECRET OF GENIALITY (Yerevan, Armenia, Noyan Tapan Printing House, 2002) by our colleague Robert Djidjian, not only because we all must know the philosophical research and creation (in our domain of epistemology and philosophy of science and technology) from a wider geographic area than that provided by the established fashion in virtue of both extra-scientific reasons and a yet obsolete manner to communicate and value the research; but also because the book as such is living, challenging and very instructive. The title of the book is suggestive enough to make us to focus on an old problem: the dialectic of the insight, of the discovery – its psychology moving between flashes of intuitions and knowledge stored in memory – and its logic of composition of knowledge from hypotheses to their demonstration and verification. The realm of science is most conducive to the understanding of this dialectic and the constitution of the ideas which are the proofs of what is the most certain for humans: the “world 3”, as Popper called the kingdom of human results of their intellection, and though transient and perishable in both their uniqueness and cosmic fate, the only certain proof of the reason to be of homo sapiens in the frame of multiversal existence. Therefore, the power to create is the secret of the human geniality, and how to create science is a main part of this secret.
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Human conduct, broadly viewed, falls into two sorts: Particular cases overlap, but the difference is discernible on any large scale consideration of conduct. Sometimes human beings act with a minimum of foresight, without examination of what they are doing and of probable consequences. They act not upon deliberation but from routine, instinct, the direct pressure of appetite, or a blind ‘hunch’. It would be a mistake to suppose that such behavior is always inefficient or unsuccessful. When we do not like it, we condemn it as capricious, arbitrary, careless, negligent. But in other cases, we praise the marvellous rectitude of instinct or intuition; we are inclined to accept the offhand appraisal of an expert in preference to elaborately calculated conclusions of a man who is ill-informed. There is the old story of the layman who was appointed to a position in India where he would have to pass in his official capacity on various matters in controversy between natives. Upon consulting a legal friend, he was told to use his common-sense and announce his decisions firmly; in the majority of cases his natural decision as to what was fair and reasonable would suffice. But, his friend added: “Never try to give reasons, for they will usually be wrong.”
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În linii mari, comportarea omenească se încadrează în două genuri. Cazurile particulare se suprapun, dar diferența poate fi făcută pe orice scară largă a evaluării conduitei. Uneori, ființele umane acționează cu un minimum de prevedere, fără examinarea a ceea ce fac și a consecințelor probabile. Acționează nu în urma deliberării, ci în virtutea rutinei, a instinctului, a presiunii directe exercitate de apetit, a unei „presimțiri” oarbe. Ar fi o greșeală să presupunem că un asemenea comportament este întotdeauna ineficient sau lipsit de succes. Cînd nu ne place, îl condamnăm ca fiind capricios, arbitrar, neatent, neglijent. Însă, în alte cazuri, lăudăm minunata rectitudine a instinctului ori a intuiției; sîntem înclinați să acceptăm aprecierea făcută pe nepregătite de un expert în dauna concluziilor calculate în mod elaborat de un om prost informat. Există acea veche poveste a profanului care a primit o funcție în India, unde trebuia să-și pună la lucru capacitatea oficială în privința unor chestiuni diverse care stîrneau controverse printre indigeni. Consultîndu-se cu un prieten din domeniul juridic, a fost sfătuit să-și folosească bunul simț și să-și anunțe deciziile cu fermitate; în majoritatea cazurilor, decizia sa firească referitoare la ceea ce era corect și rezonabil ar fi fost de ajuns. Dar, a adăugat prietenul: „Niciodată să nu încerci să dai justificări, fiindcă acestea vor fi cel mai adesea greșite”.
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Maḳâle fî ṣınâʿati'l-manṭıḳ, the only work of Maimonides on logic, has a distinctive feature in point of presenting a logical summary based on terms. This article shaped by titles, which evaluates the opinions here in the form of explanation, comparison and analysis for many reasons; philosophy of logic, preparation for logic, concepts, propositions, comparison and five arts. In the philosophy of logic, it is examined what kind of knowledge logic is in the context of its relationship with philosophy and sciences and its necessity for the certainty of knowledge. In the logic preparation part, two basic problems, namely the concepts of relational existence and the theory of causality, are discussed. These are not direct problems of logic, but are considered as preparatory issues for a better understanding of logic. Five universals, categories and definition theory are included in the concepts. In the propositions section, propositions are discussed and evaluated according to their quality, quantity, counter-affirmation situations, modality and rotation situations. In the syllogism part, the basic concepts, figures, modes and types of qiyas are included. In the five arts section, the five arts and the propositions that can be precursors are emphasized.
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