The Legend of Phyllis: Ancient Text in Renaiisance Context
Легендата за Филис: античен текст в ренесансов контекст
Keywords: Phyllis; Demphon; Geoffrey Chaucer; the Legend of Good Women; John Gower; Confessio Amantis
Around the mid-1380s, John Gower, finishing his long poem Confessio Amantis, shared that fact with his friend Geoffrey Chaucer. In response, he told him about his new poem The Legend of Good Women, or – as he called it – The Seintes Legende of Cupide, on which he had started work at the same time. The article systematizes and analyzes the mythological and literary tradition of the Thracian princess Phyllis and her misfortune and tragic love with Athenian prince Demophon in the context of Chaucer’s The Legend of Good Women and Gower’s Confessio Amantis. Both poets followed the general framework set by Ovid in his Heroides (Ep. II and Ep. XIV), but with the deformations inherent to their own era and their own moralising purposes. Their versions, however, differ substantially in some significant details. The comparative analysis of the two works reveals the alternative sources that the two poets used in their works, as well as the deviations from and innovations to the ancient and medieval mythological and literary tradition. Obviously, both Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower interpreted and adapted intentionally alternative sources that enriched their works with eclectic, intricate and artificial intertwining of details, aimed at building and perfecting their insights into the ethics of courtly love.
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Are Roman Popular Assemblies Democratic? Some Arguments against Polybius
Демократични ли са народните събрания в Рим? Няколко аргумента срещу Полибий
Keywords: Polybius; Aristotle; democracy; comitia; Republican Rome
Polybius is well-known for his Sixth book depicting the Roman state of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC as a unique mixed government combining the best elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. With the monarchical element represented by the two consuls, the aristocratic element projected by the Senate and popular assemblies as a democratic institution, it all seems an elaborated and logical explanation of the mid-Republican Rome. But is it true? The aim of this text is to check if the Roman popular assemblies up to the time of Polybius were really democratic in the sense of Aristotle. The narratives of Cicero, Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus do not support any notion of Aristotelian democracy in the organization and procedures of the Roman popular assemblies.
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Specificity of Clinical Terms, Formed through Metaphorization of Mythological and Literary Imagery
Специфика на клиничните термини, възникнали чрез метафоризация на митологична и литературна образност
Keywords: clinical terminology; metaphorization; mythological and literary imagery
Based on Old Greek and Latin, clinical terminology has been developing for thousands of years, which has led to imagery infiltrations in term names from different eras. Clinical terms, formed through metaphorization, are distinguished according to various criteria: method of formation, scope of the metaphor, detectability of the metaphor, type of the lexical units, used for secondary nomination. Different types of terms have a different mechanism of metaphoric transferal, as well as presence and strength of the metaphor. This study focuses on eponymous metaphors, constructed on the basis of mythological and literary imagery, combining two methods of nomination – eponymous and metaphoric. This study identifies the two main types of terms in this group – mythological eponymous metaphors and literary eponymous metaphors. We discuss the similarities and differences between metaphors and eponymous metaphors, on the one hand, and between ordinary eponyms and mythological or literary eponyms, on the other. The different ways of constructing the mythological and literary eponymous terms are examined and their specific mechanism of metaphorical transferal is explored. The methods of creating the outer form of the terms are established – either by an eponymous construction or by means of adding affixes. A distinction is also made on the basis of their inner form, which defines them as metaphors with obvious imagery and metaphors with hidden imagery. The study of the metaphorically formed terms in medical and, in particular, in clinical terminology has an informative, cognitive, and didactic meaning in the general discourse of the academic medical education.
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Translation of Latin Christian Works into Bulgarian: Questions and Challenges
Преводът на латински християнски произведения на български език – въпроси и предизвикателства
Keywords: theory of translation; Latin Christian literature; word-for-word translation; free translation
There are specific questions concerning the translation of the Latin Christian literature into Bulgarian. In the first place, the choice of valuable works for translation. Next, the correct rendering of the names of the authors and the titles of the works, the translation of the biblical texts inside of the patristic works and, most importantly, the degree of free translation. The choice of an actual work for translation and the method of presentation – totally or in an anthology, are also very significant. Which are the most remarkable works of Latin Christian literature, whose translations have potential to become masterpieces? And which are the rules for the creation of a great translation? Answers to these questions are given in the following article.
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The Penetration of Christianity in Diocleatianopolis
Навлизане на християнството в Диоклецианопол
Keywords: Christianity; Christian basilica; Late Antiquity; Diocletianopolis
The present paper research the question of the penetration of the Christianity in Diocletianopolis. The period concerns the time between the emergence of the late antique city of Diocletianopolis and the middle of V c. The study is realized by using the references of the Christian temple architecture of the city. The author discusses the information of the emergence of the Christian temples in the late antique city, some problems in the historiography and in addition provides new questions and views. The high concentration of the Christian basilicas in the territory of one city makes it possible to be concluded that there was a highly developed Christian community in Diocletianopolis. In summary, it could be written that one of the earliest basilicas in the late antique city is Basilica No. 4a, as the primary building is dated in the middle of/the second half of IV c. Another basilica, which is a part of this period, is the primary building of Basilica No. 3. Basilicas No. 2, 5 and 8 are dated in the first half of V c. It could be noted that the earliest Christian temple of the interior of the city is Basilica No. 2.
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Close-kin Marriages in Menander
Близкородствените бракове в творбите на Менандър
Keywords: Greek New Comedy; Menander; Athens; close-kin marriage; epikleros
The subject of this paper is the close-kin marriages in Menander’s comedies. The normative preference for close-kin marriage was different in fourth-centry BC Athens from modern societies. However, incestuous relations between full-blood brother and sister pr parent and child were considered wrong, and were never comic material in Menander’s comedy, which was concerned with realities of everyday life. I examine the comic purpose of introducing close-kin marriages in New Comedy, and I try to give explination on the cultural attitude towards endogamy. In order to explain these issues, I classify the close-kin marriages in three groups: (1) Brother-sister marriage, (2) First cousins marriage, (3) Marriage of the epikleros.
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The Culture of the National in the Political Discourse of Modern Greece
Културата на националното в политическия дискурс на съвременна Гърция
Keywords: culture; identification; nation; modern Greece; political discourse
The paper focuses on the concepts of culture, identity and nation in an attempt to present the most popular perceptions of their range and specifics. Political discourse is also at focus as a specific social form of language. The aim of the paper is to study the penetration of national culture in political discourse. Fragments of political speeches in modern Greece have been examined in an attempt to represent the significant role of national identity in political speaking.
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Hanako: A Kabuki Actress Across Bulgaria and Transylvania at the Beginning of the 20th Century
Ханако: една кабуки актриса из България и Трансилвания в началото на XX в.
Keywords: Japan; Bulgaria; Romania; Kabuki Theater; Hanako; archives
For the first time, this study analyses and export to the academic community the rare documents and archival materials proving that the Japanese Kabuki theatre actress Hanako realised a tour in Kingdom of Bulgaria and Transylvania (Austro-Hungarian Empire) in 1911. Referring to the information from Sawada Suketaro‘s book “Little Hanako. The Strange Story of Rodin’s Only Japanese Model” the research paper tracks down and focuses on the contracts, advertisements and the critical reception who introduced unknown aspects of Japanese culture to the territory of mentioned countries from present Eastern Europe. Hanako’s presence is also set in a broad European and research context because she had an important influence on the development of Western stage practices.For the first time, this study analyses and export to the academic community the rare documents and archival materials proving that the Japanese Kabuki theatre actress Hanako realised a tour in Kingdom of Bulgaria and Transylvania (Austro-Hungarian Empire) in 1911. Referring to the information from Sawada Suketaro‘s book “Little Hanako. The Strange Story of Rodin’s Only Japanese Model” the research paper tracks down and focuses on the contracts, advertisements and the critical reception who introduced unknown aspects of Japanese culture to the territory of mentioned countries from present Eastern Europe. Hanako’s presence is also set in a broad European and research context because she had an important influence on the development of Western stage practices.
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Characteristic Features of Chinese Tang Culture
Характеристики и особености на Танската култура
Keywords: Tang China; culture; Silk Road
The present paper discusses and analyzes some cultural phenomena of the Tang period in China, which is the era of unprecedented prosperity in Chinese history: literature (especially poetry), historiography, philosophy, art, science and technology reached unheard and unseen peaks. Political unity, social stability, economic prosperity, transport development and active international relations played the role of a catalyst in the process of quick development. It is a fact that other dynasties in Chinese history provided good social and economic conditions for the people as well but it is difficult to explain why they failed to make such brilliant achievements in the field of culture as Tang, when the innovative and creative potential of the nation managed to unleash.The present paper discusses and analyzes some cultural phenomena of the Tang period in China, which is the era of unprecedented prosperity in Chinese history: literature (especially poetry), historiography, philosophy, art, science and technology reached unheard and unseen peaks. Political unity, social stability, economic prosperity, transport development and active international relations played the role of a catalyst in the process of quick development. It is a fact that other dynasties in Chinese history provided good social and economic conditions for the people as well but it is difficult to explain why they failed to make such brilliant achievements in the field of culture as Tang, when the innovative and creative potential of the nation managed to unleash.
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The Image of a Stratum in a Nation’s Perception: Prepequisites for Its Formation
Образът на едно съсловие в съзнанието на един народ – предпоставки за формиране
Keywords: Chinese culture; stereotypes; Eunuchs’ Stratum
Stereotypes that are formed in a society in terms of phenomena, conditions and processes are persistent and difficult to destroy. The reasons for their presence are complex. A basic explanation in this direction is offered by Yul. Popova, who reminds the character of stereotypes as a categorizing mechanism of human perception and leads to economy of effort that is being achieved through them (Popova 2015). The millennial consecutive evolution of Chinese nation favors the accumulation of cultural layers from different historical periods and determines the existence of a number of secondary images that mediate the relationship (Vassileva 2018) of its representatives with reality. This paper aims to present and suggest possible explanations of the negative associations accumulated within Chinese society for centuries towards the Eunuchs’ stratum.Stereotypes that are formed in a society in terms of phenomena, conditions and processes are persistent and difficult to destroy. The reasons for their presence are complex. A basic explanation in this direction is offered by Yul. Popova, who reminds the character of stereotypes as a categorizing mechanism of human perception and leads to economy of effort that is being achieved through them (Popova 2015). The millennial consecutive evolution of Chinese nation favors the accumulation of cultural layers from different historical periods and determines the existence of a number of secondary images that mediate the relationship (Vassileva 2018) of its representatives with reality. This paper aims to present and suggest possible explanations of the negative associations accumulated within Chinese society for centuries towards the Eunuchs’ stratum.
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Globalization and Its Influence on Teaching Japanese as a Second Language
Глобализацията и нейното влияние върху обучението по японски език като втори
Keywords: globalization; methods of teaching; Japanese language; Japanese culture; multicultural society
The process of globalization and the mobility of human resources pose new tasks and challenges towards the foreign language education in theoretical and practical aspect nowadays. It focuses on the development of competences outside the classroom that help smooth interactions and co-existence between members in multicultural societies. The aim of the present paper is to: 1) Introduce to the reader some of the methods used in teaching Japanese language as a second language in higher education institutions in Japan; 2) Focus on contemporary methods that meet the requirements of the process of globalization.The process of globalization and the mobility of human resources pose new tasks and challenges towards the foreign language education in theoretical and practical aspect nowadays. It focuses on the development of competences outside the classroom that help smooth interactions and co-existence between members in multicultural societies. The aim of the present paper is to: 1) Introduce to the reader some of the methods used in teaching Japanese language as a second language in higher education institutions in Japan; 2) Focus on contemporary methods that meet the requirements of the process of globalization.The process of globalization and the mobility of human resources pose new tasks and challenges towards the foreign language education in theoretical and practical aspect nowadays. It focuses on the development of competences outside the classroom that help smooth interactions and co-existence between members in multicultural societies. The aim of the present paper is to: 1) Introduce to the reader some of the methods used in teaching Japanese language as a second language in higher education institutions in Japan; 2) Focus on contemporary methods that meet the requirements of the process of globalization.The process of globalization and the mobility of human resources pose new tasks and challenges towards the foreign language education in theoretical and practical aspect nowadays. It focuses on the development of competences outside the classroom that help smooth interactions and co-existence between members in multicultural societies. The aim of the present paper is to: 1) Introduce to the reader some of the methods used in teaching Japanese language as a second language in higher education institutions in Japan; 2) Focus on contemporary methods that meet the requirements of the process of globalization.
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The Japanese Ta- Form: Past Tense or Perfective Aspect
Японската глаголна форма "Та" – свършен вид или минало време (значения)
Keywords: past tense; non-past; perfective; progressive; completion
The paper deals with the meanings of the Japanese TA verb form, according to the research of some leading linguists. The TA-form is viewed in aspectual and temporal opposition with the non-past U/RUform, as well as in aspectual opposition with the progressive TE+IRUform and the past progressive TE+ITA- form.The paper deals with the meanings of the Japanese TA verb form, according to the research of some leading linguists. The TA-form is viewed in aspectual and temporal opposition with the non-past U/RUform, as well as in aspectual opposition with the progressive TE+IRUform and the past progressive TE+ITA- form.
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Tools and Methods for Introduction of Background Knowledge and Communication Skills in "Chinese Environment' of Students Studying Chinese at Primary and Secondary School
Средства и методи за подаване на фонови знания и изграждане на умения за общуване в "китайска среда" на учениците, изучаващи китайски език в основното и средното училище
Keywords: communication; Chinese language; culture; background knowledge; FFL
Pursuit of communication is the major motivation in foreign language learning. Knowing one or more foreign languages today is no longer an additional qualification, but is part of the basic knowledge indispensable for the next stage of students’ education. Mastering a foreign language is not limited to acquiring knowledge about grammatical construction, lexical units and phonetic features of a certain language. In view of the fact that “culture is the necessary context for using a certain language” (web 3), the ability to fully use a foreign language in communication is preconditioned by the mastery of background knowledge related to the cultural specificity and civilization model of the nation.Pursuit of communication is the major motivation in foreign language learning. Knowing one or more foreign languages today is no longer an additional qualification, but is part of the basic knowledge indispensable for the next stage of students’ education. Mastering a foreign language is not limited to acquiring knowledge about grammatical construction, lexical units and phonetic features of a certain language. In view of the fact that “culture is the necessary context for using a certain language” (web 3), the ability to fully use a foreign language in communication is preconditioned by the mastery of background knowledge related to the cultural specificity and civilization model of the nation.Pursuit of communication is the major motivation in foreign language learning. Knowing one or more foreign languages today is no longer an additional qualification, but is part of the basic knowledge indispensable for the next stage of students’ education. Mastering a foreign language is not limited to acquiring knowledge about grammatical construction, lexical units and phonetic features of a certain language. In view of the fact that “culture is the necessary context for using a certain language” (web 3), the ability to fully use a foreign language in communication is preconditioned by the mastery of background knowledge related to the cultural specificity and civilization model of the nation.Pursuit of communication is the major motivation in foreign language learning. Knowing one or more foreign languages today is no longer an additional qualification, but is part of the basic knowledge indispensable for the next stage of students’ education. Mastering a foreign language is not limited to acquiring knowledge about grammatical construction, lexical units and phonetic features of a certain language. In view of the fact that “culture is the necessary context for using a certain language” (web 3), the ability to fully use a foreign language in communication is preconditioned by the mastery of background knowledge related to the cultural specificity and civilization model of the nation.
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Japan in the 1980s
Япония през 80-те години на XX век
Keywords: 1980s; politics; economy; technology; culture
Many authors consider the 1980s as the time of the “Second Japanese miracle”. The decade has its tops and drops and has a long-term impact on Japanese socio-economic, political and cultural life. Thanks to the intensive implementation of the advances in scientific and technological progress and energy saving, Japan has managed to move from industrial to post-industrial society. The desire of the young Japanese to feel different, more special, their new musical preferences lead to the shaping of many subcultures that influence fashion, design, and music trends not only in Japan but also abroad. The development of animations and comics makes popular not only their creators but also many composers, performers and Japanese culture as a whole.Many authors consider the 1980s as the time of the “Second Japanese miracle”. The decade has its tops and drops and has a long-term impact on Japanese socio-economic, political and cultural life. Thanks to the intensive implementation of the advances in scientific and technological progress and energy saving, Japan has managed to move from industrial to post-industrial society. The desire of the young Japanese to feel different, more special, their new musical preferences lead to the shaping of many subcultures that influence fashion, design, and music trends not only in Japan but also abroad. The development of animations and comics makes popular not only their creators but also many composers, performers and Japanese culture as a whole.
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On the Arrangement of Reliefs Revealing Tiglath-Pileser III's Arab Campaign. Problems and Hypotheses
За подредбата на релефите с арабската кампания на Тиглат-Паласар III. Проблеми и хипотези
Keywords: Tiglath-Pileser III; scheme; argument; palace; monument; campaign; Layard
The aim of the present paper is to review some problems of the arrangement of nine monuments – seven reliefs and two drawings, proposed in two previous studies on the issue. Most of the monuments were found by Layard in 1845 within remains of the Central Palace in Kalah (Nimrud), but not on their original position because the artifacts were dismantled in the Antiquity. The circumstances of the finding are described with contradictions in the primary documentation and later works of Layard, giving opportunity to different reconstructions of the whole composition with the Arab campaign. As result two hypotheses were proposed for resolving of the problem, the first one by Barnett and Falkner in 1962, and the second by Reade in 1968 and 1979. Both hypotheses are examined critically in relation to their main schemes and arguments used in favor of the positions expressed. The physical form and the scenes of the monuments allow a sure reconstruction for only a part of composition and the exact place of five artifacts (three reliefs and the both drawings) remains uncertain. Some general and particular observations on the problems and hypotheses on relief’s order are added in the conclusion. The discrepancies in the archaeological documentation, our insuffi-cient knowledge on the principles of arrangement of Assyrian historical relief, and the missing monuments put every hypothesis on the order of the artifacts under doubt. For the present, the best way supposed for ordering the reliefs remains the direct relation between their scenes and the written narrative of the royal inscriptions.
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Scenes of Worship and Ritual Sacrifices Before the Deities on the Mesopotamian Cylinder Seals (III–I mil B.C.)
Сцени на поклонение и ритуални жертвоприношения пред божествата върху цилиндрични печати (III–I хил. пр. Хр.)
Keywords: cylinder seals; glyptic; cultic scenes; sacrifices; rituals; Mesopotamia
The purpose of the present paper is to research the scenes of worship and ritual sacrifices before the deities, which are a part of the Mesopotamian cylinder seals. The research concerns the time from Early Dynastic Period until Neo-Assyrian Period. This type of scenes are represented at the earliest during the EDP III (c. 2600–2334 B. C.), but their quantity is not very high. From Akkadian period the number of the cultic scenes and the scenes of ritual sacrifices increased. During the Period of Third Dynasty of Ur/ Ur III the most popular scene on the cylinder seals is the cultic presentation of the worshiper by the priest or the mediator deity. In II mil. B. C. the scenes of worship and ritual sacrifices are frequently represented on the seals. In Neo-Assyrian period the cultic scene is very well registered, but the scenes of ritual sacrifices are not common. In addition the author discusses the question of the ritual activities and the role of divine statues as mediators to provide the communication between the worshipers and the gods. According to figs. 8–9 and some mythical texts I guess that the Mesopotamians distinguished the divine statue from the god. I guess that they recognized the statue as a symbol of the god and a way to show their worship to the god. In regard to the sacrifices, some authors consider that the ritual burning of the meat of the sacrificed animal did not exist in the Mesopotamian ritual. In this case the author of the current paper presents passages of ritual texts, which correspond with the scenes and prove that there was a ritual burning in the Mesopotamian sacrifices. It is also very important to be noted that in the Akkadian texts, especially in the ritual texts, concerning the ritual sacrifices for the gods, is registered and frequently presented the term maqalûtu/maqlûtu, which means ‘’burnt offering’’. This fact indicates even more categorically that the ritual burning of the meat is a part of the sacrifices in Mesopotamia. Moreover, some authors suggest that the meat is served only to the gods, i. e. for their statues and not to the worshipers. But these statements are suspicious, because the ritual and administrative texts provide the information that the worshipers also took part in the consumption of the meat of the sacrificed animal.The purpose of the present paper is to research the scenes of worship and ritual sacrifices before the deities, which are a part of the Mesopotamian cylinder seals. The research concerns the time from Early Dynastic Period until Neo-Assyrian Period. This type of scenes are represented at the earliest during the EDP III (c. 2600–2334 B. C.), but their quantity is not very high. From Akkadian period the number of the cultic scenes and the scenes of ritual sacrifices increased. During the Period of Third Dynasty of Ur/ Ur III the most popular scene on the cylinder seals is the cultic presentation of the worshiper by the priest or the mediator deity. In II mil. B. C. the scenes of worship and ritual sacrifices are frequently represented on the seals. In Neo-Assyrian period the cultic scene is very well registered, but the scenes of ritual sacrifices are not common. In addition the author discusses the question of the ritual activities and the role of divine statues as mediators to provide the communication between the worshipers and the gods. According to figs. 8–9 and some mythical texts I guess that the Mesopotamians distinguished the divine statue from the god. I guess that they recognized the statue as a symbol of the god and a way to show their worship to the god. In regard to the sacrifices, some authors consider that the ritual burning of the meat of the sacrificed animal did not exist in the Mesopotamian ritual. In this case the author of the current paper presents passages of ritual texts, which correspond with the scenes and prove that there was a ritual burning in the Mesopotamian sacrifices. It is also very important to be noted that in the Akkadian texts, especially in the ritual texts, concerning the ritual sacrifices for the gods, is registered and frequently presented the term maqalûtu/maqlûtu, which means ‘’burnt offering’’. This fact indicates even more categorically that the ritual burning of the meat is a part of the sacrifices in Mesopotamia. Moreover, some authors suggest that the meat is served only to the gods, i. e. for their statues and not to the worshipers. But these statements are suspicious, because the ritual and administrative texts provide the information that the worshipers also took part in the consumption of the meat of the sacrificed animal.
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The Main Motives on Scenes of Mesopotamian Uruk Cylinder Seals
Основни мотиви в сцените по цилиндричните печати от периода Урук в Месопотамия
Keywords: Sumer; Uruk; cylinder seal; priest-king; Egypt
The present paper includes summary and interpretation of the main motives on the scenes of Mesopotamian Uruk cylinder seals, adding also some new observations. The Late Uruk époque is dated in 34th – 30th centuries BC and is known as a period of the urban revolution. The center of this revolution is the city of Uruk in Lower Mesopotamia. The so-called “Uruk Culture” (according to the archaeological terminology) is part of the civilization of Ancient Sumer and represents the spirit of this civilization and its bearers. Then, side by side with the creation of the reliefs in miniature was created one of the first writings – the cuneiform. Both inventions contributed to the development of the civilization in the Ancient Near East and were used together for more than thirty centuries after. A review of the main motives engraved on the monuments is the basic aim of this study. The so called “Priest-king” is important figure in several motives and is accepted as a sign for a presence of hierarchy. The scenes with boats may be connected with some rituals. The scenes with rows of animals may have been used by certain department of administration. By studying the scenes on cylinder seals we can make some conclusion about the beliefs of the ancient inhabitants and their daily life. In some cases we can make a link between the connections of Sumer and Egypt where same motives on scenes of some local artifacts can be found in contemporary monuments.The present paper includes summary and interpretation of the main motives on the scenes of Mesopotamian Uruk cylinder seals, adding also some new observations. The Late Uruk époque is dated in 34rd – 30th centuries BC and is known as a period of the urban revolution. The center of this revolution is the city of Uruk in Lower Mesopotamia. The so-called “Uruk Culture” (according to the archaeological terminology) is part of the civilization of Ancient Sumer and represents the spirit of this civilization and its bearers. Then, side by side with the creation of the reliefs in miniature was created one of the first writings – the cuneiform. Both inventions contributed to the development of the civilization in the Ancient Near East and were used together for more than thirty centuries after. A review of the main motives engraved on the monuments is the basic aim of this study. The so called “Priest-king” is important figure in several motives and is accepted as a sign for a presence of hierarchy. The scenes with boats may be connected with some rituals. The scenes with rows of animals may have been used by certain department of administration. By studying the scenes on cylinder seals we can make some conclusion about the beliefs of the ancient inhabitants and their daily life. In some cases we can make a link between the connections of Sumer and Egypt where same motives on scenes of some local artifacts can be found in contemporary monuments.
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Music is the Only Motherland: The Rebetika Songs in the Greek Musical Tradition
Единствена родина е музиката: песните ребетика в гръцката музикална традиция
Keywords: rebetiko; underground; revivals; refugees; musicology; Smyrna
Rebetiko music lies at the intersection of East and West. The “Greek Blues”, as it is often referred to, emerged from the hash dens and prison cells of Greece around the beginning of the 20th century. Through the life story (as presented in the documentary My Sweet Canary directed by Israeli film director Roy Sher) of notable rebetiko singer Roza Eskenazi, a vanished world is evoked and its influences today followed. „Roza Eshkenazi, the most famous singer of 1930s Greece, the Diva of Rebetiko, with her posters displayed in every gramophone store, with her bohemian looks would drive even the toughest men crazy”, asserts Thessaloniki writer Dinos Christianopoulos in his short story ‘Roza’. Roza Eskenazi sang and lived with passion, fire and love. The origins of rebetiko – a musical style emerging in urban surroundings typical for commercially developed port cities (and distantly related to Buenos Aires milongas and ‘blatnye’ songs of the Odessa underworld), is inextricably related to the cultural and economic progress of Smyrna during the mid-to late 19th century. Rebetiko music as it evolved in this cosmopolitan city received both western and Oriental influences: Italianate mandolin ensembles and violin solos, as well as indigenous instrumentation (santouri, oud) characteristic of the Levant. In the wake of traumatic 1914–1922 events culminating in the Asia Minor Catastrophe, these songs were brought by Greek Orthodox refugees to almost all the major urban areas of metropolitan Greece, especially Athens, Piraeus and Thessaloniki, and also flourished amongst the remaining Greeks of Constantinople. Rebetiko music also accompanied Greek emigrants overseas, particularly to America, leaving a valuable legacy of unique archival recordings from the 1920s and 1930s. The paper will trace the history of rebetiko studies by ethnomusicologists, such as the Greek intellectual Ilias Petropoulos, and the Australian researcher Gail Holst who spent years in Greece amongst rebetiko musicians playing with them. Light will be shed upon the main music instruments used in rebetiko ensembles, places where this music was performed, the social impact of the rebetic way of life and the reaction of mainstream society (especially the 1930s Metaxas dictatorship and the military junta 1967–1974) to these musicians’ nonconformist and often underground lifestyle. Roza Eshkenazi’s biography, starting from her Sephardic Jewish origins in Istanbul and Thessaloniki and debut in Athens – where she attained fame by the late 1920s, becoming the most recorded rebetiko performer, with more than 500 sides sung in Greek, Turkish and Ladino – up to the tragic end of her life, will illustrate the history of a music genre still alive and popular in Greece, while gaining ever more admirers in Turkey, Israel, Australia, Germany, the USA, Sweden and elsewhere.
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