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The aim of this paper is to compare, contrast and discuss speech act research in twelve cross-cultural and intercultural studies presenting original findings concerning linguistic politeness. Most studies have focused on comparing English with other languages. As for the instruments, Discourse Completion Tasks/Tests (DCT) have been the most commonly used method, followed by interviews and role plays.
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This paper briefly describes the condition of multilingualism in the field of didactics of another foreign language. The mapping review focuses on some Czech and foreign researches from the viewpoint of German as a second foreign language.
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The aim of the article is primarily to present the etymology of the names and surnames of the Jubilarian as well as the way these onimas function both historically and today. The source material for analysis was excerpted from dictionaries of the Polish language: etymological, general (explanatory: historical and contemporary dictionaries), phraseological, and onomastic.
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The article presents the results of the research of Danuta Bieńkowska, a linguist from Łódź, on the issue of Polish biblical style. For this purpose the author recalled the main results and findings made by Bieńkowska in the monograph Polish Biblical Style (2002) published 20 years ago, which was the first attempt at a synthetic approach to this issue in the Polish language. The author of the study drew attention to three dimensions of this work, which, from the contemporary perspective, have the following character: 1. permanent, 2. constituting a field for discussion and 3. opening perspectives for further research in this field.
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The meaning of the Greek lexeme φύραμα (or Latin massa) in Rom 11:16, 1 Cor 5:6 and Gal 5:9 - ‘any substance mixed with water and kneaded; a mass, lump’ – only generally indicates the referent. Therefore, in Polish biblical Renaissance translations, it has several synonymous equivalents: ciasto – przymieszanie – rozczyna – rozmieszenie – zaczynienie – zadziałanie – zamies – zamieszanie.In the New Testament of Jakub Wujek from 1593 (Wuj93) there are three of them: ciasto, zaczynienie, zadziałanie. Textual distribution of equivalents of Greek φύραμα or Latin massa in Wuj93 is a result of a philological translation strategy, which consits in revealing the meaning of the Latin translation text basis also by confronting it with the Greek New Testament text. The equivalent ciasto is attested in earlier Catholic renderings of 1556 and 1561. The other two equivalents are attested in Protestant New Testament renderings –zaczynienie in the Anti-Trinitarian one from 1577, zadziałanie in the Calvinist one from 1563. The textual provenance of these equivalents are less relevant to their semantic adequacy in specific biblical contexts.However, in the New Testament in the Bible of Jakub Wujek from 1599 (Wuj99) in all biblical contexts only one equivalent was used: ciasto, attested in the earlier Catholic renderings. The Jesuit censorship commission led by Stanisław Grodzicki, which revised Jakub Wujek's translation, chose a literal translation strategy. The rendering should be strictly in line with the Latin Clementine Vulgate (1592). As a result, the contextual synonymous equivalents of Latin massa (i.e. ciasto, zaczynie, zadziałanie) were replaced with one lexeme only (i.e. ciasto).
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In his “Słownik języka polskiego” (vols 1-6, Warsaw 1807-1814) S. B. Linde included a large number of quotations from Polish 16th and 17th century Bible translations. They illustrate the semantic meaning of numerous words of the Polish language but also show alternative translation choices thanks to quoting parallel extracts from two or more Bible versions. Linde not only rendered great services for Polish and Slavic lexicography, but also pioneered philological research on Polish Bible translations. In addition, the lexicographer was interested in the translations of Luther and Skoryna, Lithuanian bibles and the Gothic New Testament of Ulfilas.
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This paper attemps to characterize the language of the latest Catholic translation of the Holy Scriptures, i. e. the Bible edited by the Society of Saint Paul (2008). The translation strategies adopted by the translators are discussed in respect of: 1) the translation of Polish Biblical style (established by the Rev. Jakub Wujek), 2) the tradition of the Millennium Bible (1965). The aim is to show the extent to which the translators managed to fulfil two postulates that are usually difficult to reconcile: faithfulness to tradition and comprehensibility of language. In the Millenium Bible the postulate of faithfulness is often fulfilled at the expense of comprehensibility. The Paulist Bible is a response to the challenges posed by the contemporary culture; it is meant to convey Biblical ideas in language appealing to the contemporary recipient. The author uses selected samples to illustrate how the Paulist Bible departing from the method of literal translation, manifested in, e.g., reflecting Semitisms, does not abandon the principle of fidelity and remains consistent with the idiosyncrasies of the Polish Biblical style.
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This study focuses on a rhymed adaptation of the four gospels, Jezusa Chrystusa Zbawiennego Pana Nowina Wspaniała wierszem rozgłaszana [Jesus Christ the Saviour and the Lord’s Gospel Most Magnificent in verse], published in Krakow in 2017 by Antoni Gazda under the pseudonym of Bogurym Polski. Subject to discussion are selected conventionalized constructions representing quotation variants: continuous linguistic units and textual sequences of different text genre status (biblicisms in the broader sense), established in the Polish language and disseminated in social discourse, e.g. “like sheep without a shepherd; the harvest is plentiful, but the labourers are few; no one can serve two masters; you cannot serve God and mammon; friend, go up higher; come to me, all you who labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest; learn from me; for I am gentle and lowly in heart; my yoke is easy and my burden is light; for all things are possible with God; by their fruits you shall know them; in my Father's house are many rooms; even now the axe is laid to the root of the trees.” The biblical phraseology treated as one of the basic exponents of the Polish biblical style in Bogurym Polski's work is preserved on a general scale, which can be interpreted as a general indication of compliance with the hieratic translation tradition. Individual modifications of biblicisms are those necessitated by the poetic form of the work. The basic types of change are addition of component(s) and changes in word order.
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The paper discusses the current studies on the influence of individuals on the Polish language and proposes directions for further research on this issue, resulting mainly from methodological (change of linguistic paradigms: a new concept of language, the need to take into account the internal differentiation of the idiolect), historical (multiple types of influencing a language) and cultural (new language models of Poles) premises. The following postulates have been formulated:1. to study the influence of various variants of idiolects, not only its artistic variation; 2. to compare them with the appropriate variant of the Polish language; 3. to consider the relationship of an idiolect/idiostyle and a language of the community in a strictly synchronous perspective; 4. to consider all possible types of influence on a language of the community; 5. to take into account different levels of language and linguistic phenomena, and well as attitudes towards language.
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The subject of considerations of this article are 16th-century feminine names (feminatives) formed with the suffixes ”-i/-yc(a)” and ”-nic(a)”, and derived primarily from masculine personal nouns (masculinatives) ending in ”-ec”, ”-ic”, “-ik”, and ”-nik”. The three female suffixes form nouns belonging to the categories of agents, attributive names, and affinity names. The research material was excerpted from the ”Słownik polszczyzny XVI wieku” [SPXVI, ”The Dictionary of 16th-Century Polish Language”] and included 68 lexemes in 1,097 uses. For the authors, the purpose of the research was to interpret selected 16th-century feminatives by subjecting them to formal historical word-formation analysis, using the lexicographic description contained in SPXVI and other historical lexicons. The analysis was supplemented with an attempt at painting the linguistic image of the woman of the Renaissance era. In the material discussed, the most represented group were the ”nomina attributiva”, an explicatively difficult category. On the other hand, the least represented group were the affinity names. The research demonstrated that modifying derivatives (so-called simple feminatives) were the most frequent in the group of names studied, more than half of which originated in the 16th century. Although some of the examples are nonce words, this fragmentary overview of 16th-century material allowed the authors to formulate several conclusions about the image of the woman of the era, both in the professional context and in the stereotypical perception.
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The observation of scientific texts from the nineteenth century, devoted to the history of Poland and the Polish language, presents a tendency to use various manners of rhetorical provenance to create a message with a specific cognitive value, persuasive power and axiological character. Interest in this phenomenon is related to reflection on the scientific language of history and the paradigm of cognitive objectivity as well as the concept of linguistic distance. The use of various figurative transformations: metaphors, metonymies, hyperbolas, comparisons and metaphorical epithets in the works of historians in the 19th century turns out to be particularly puzzling. The publication of “Starodawnych prawa polskiego pomników” (from 1865, 1870) by Antoni Zygmunt Helcel was used as illustrative material. The legal historian expressed the content related to the discipline of knowledge he practiced, the research material as well as the methods and cognitive strategy of the researcher with suggestive, expressive tropes. They are proof of the erudition of the author who knows how to use the rich resource of elocutionary linguistic procedures. They also testify to the manner of expressing content adopted in a particular communicative community. The exploitation of tropes in a 19th-century scientific text does not contradict the postulated logic of inference and research intuition. As a result, an image of the nineteenth-century scientific discourse in the history of law is created in which the author does not avoid expressing his views clearly, unambiguous and expressive criticism, pictorial presentation of concepts and problems, and metaphorical determination of historiosophical foundations and historical ideas. At the same time, he declares and adopts the attitude of impartiality and objectivity.
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The aim of the article is a preliminary analysis of Polish veterinary terminology that is noted in the most important 19th-century lexicon of Polish medical terminology, i.e. in “Słownik terminologii lekarskiej polskiej” [“Dictionary of Polish Medical Terminology”] of 1881. The description of the material beginning with the letter P resulted in the conclusion that Polish veterinary terminology is still very strongly connected with the Polish medical terminology of the time and is at the same stage of development and transformation as Polish medical terminology. This means that Polish veterinary terminology: 1) is largely native, 2) there are still fluctuations in the limits of terms, 3) synonymy is present in it, albeit on a smaller scale, 4) there is no polysemy in it, 5) it is created mainly through morphological derivation.
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The article is an attempt to show how young people understand the content of Bogurodzica, which fragments of the hymn cause the most problems for contemporary audiences and how large a group of respondents it applies to. The study was conducted on a group of more than one hundred second-year students of Polish philology at the University of Gdansk, who were asked to translate the Old Polish text accurately into the modern one. An analysis of the Polish language textbooks used by the respondents during their secondary school education was also carried out. It shows that the work Bogurodzica was translated into contemporary language in the textbooks. The analysis of selected fragments of translations of Bogurodzica allows us to conclude that the text is not properly understood by Poles, even those who have recently learned the work at school. The article is critical of the school’s confining themselves to analysis of the contemporary text of the work, which does not allow the artistry of Bogurodzica to be grasped — the rhymes, the rhythm, as well as learning the linguistic layer of the oldest fatherland song.
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One hundred and twenty-nine diary entries made by Ludwig Wittgenstein in the years 1930–1932, 1936–1937, and published for the first time in 1997 were the subjects of linguistic and linguistic theoretical analysis. The history of the diary as well as its structure and semantics were discussed. The most important fragments of the entries in the diary have been subjected to onomasiological analysis, as a result of which they are assigned to the names of concepts expressing their semantics globally and creating a conceptual structure.
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This paper zeroes in on current English borrowings in the Slovak language sourced from the areas of politics and economics. The paper elucidates the philosophy of mutual language contact and gives reasons as well as consequences for the borrowing of English lexemes in the present-day globalised world. English borrowings from the Slovak news on the STV1 channel are analysed both from a quantitative and qualitative angle, leaning primarily on Haugen’s approach consisting of loanwords, loanblends and loanshifts. With respect to a qualitative analysis, heed is paid to the analysis of orthographic, morphological and lexical levels. The overall aim of the present paper is to identify current patterns of English borrowings in Slovak in the selected semantic fi elds. The paper aspires to answer the question to what extent English as a lingua franca has infl uenced the Slovak speech community and how this is refl ected in the assembled word-lore, having either a positive or negative impact. A picture of English lexical borrowings as a critical route of cultural diffusion is given.
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The coexistence of Russian and Belarusian languages on the territory of Belarus leads to an active mixture of the systems of these languages, which is reflected, among other things, in the mistakes that Belarusians allow in both oral and written language. Particularly important is the problem of such superimposition of systems in official and business writing.
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Phraseological units occupy a special role in the language as well as in the speech of each person. Due to the fact it is possible to distinguish the cultural component in the semantics of almost any set expression, which manifests the mentality of the nation, it is necessary to study idioms systematically and to include them in daily communication, which will contribute to a more effective development of communicative and linguistic-cultural competence of foreign students. The article discusses the selection problem of a certain group of phraseological units for the purpose of studying them among the Slovak students, as well as the issues of working out a presentation and semantisation of phraseological units in various university classes.
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This paper presents the results of a comparative analysis of zoomorphic figurative comparisons of the Bulgarian and Russian languages, reflecting human behavior and the ability to behave in society. Similarities and differences in pattern images in the two linguocultures has been considered. Similarities and coincidences of the pattern images in the Bulgarian and Russian languages are the reflection of the similarity of thinking, observation and rethinking of reality by the representatives of the Bulgarian and Russian linguocultures. Zoomorphic images, found only in one of the two languages, are the result of historical, geographical, cultural and other features of the native speakers. Zoomorphic images that differ in national specifics, embodied in the minds of the native speakers in the form of patterns and reflecting the national perceptions of the surrounding world, are represented in the pattern (right) parts of zoomorphic figurative comparisons. They form the ethnocultural originality of the comparative construction.
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In modern linguistics the category of the subject is primarily connected with the syntactic plan of the language and serves to identify the producer of the action or the carrier of the feature. It should be borne in mind that in the structure of the sentence, depending on the logical and grammatical features, semantic content, communicative prerequisites, we can distinguish a grammatical and semantic subject. At a new level of grammatical abstraction, the grammatical subject is usually the subject, the active producer of the action, which in the sentence is a syntactically independent component. While the semantic subject, which is an agent, though expresses the producer of the action, but in the context of the sentence is opposed to the patient and does not always perform the function of the subject. This discrepancy between the grammatical and semantic subject is due to the asymmetry of semantics and form, since the grammatical subject is the category of the expression plane, and the semantic subject is the category of the content plan. Thus, the category of the subject is represented by a multidimensional syntactic concept integrating different subtypes of the subject, conditioned by a certain asymmetry of meaning and function. The article will focus the attention to the semantic subject and the ways of its implementation in Russian and Czech languages. First of all, we will consider cases of violation of the parallelism of the content plan and the expression plan, that is, those constructions in which the semantic subject and the grammatical subject do not coincide or in which the subject as part of sentence is structurally absent. Examples will be used as an illustrative material from the National Corpus of the Russian language and the Czech National Corpus.
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