We kindly inform you that, as long as the subject affiliation of our 300.000+ articles is in progress, you might get unsufficient or no results on your third level or second level search. In this case, please broaden your search criteria.
The aim of this paper is to present the compatibility of words in the Ukrainian language of 16th and 17th centuries based on the attributive-substantival complexes and the lexicographical attempt to describe these lexical units.
More...
In the article, the P. Kulish’s thoughts about the fight in the XVI-XVII centuries of Ukrainian people against social and national oppression, and for the preservation of the Orthodox faith are considered. P. Kulish was fond of the events peasant and Cossack uprisings against the Polish magnate-gentry at the end of the XVI – first half of the XVII centuries and the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people headed by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Peter Doroshenko, Gajdamacks movements and etc. Studying the history of Ukrainian people and its sharp turns, P. Kulish expressed his opinion about the fight of Ukrainian people against social and national, religious oppression in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Analyzing P. Kulish’s historical and literary works, we make the concludes that he was interested in the events of peasant and Cossack uprisings against the Polish gentry at the end of the XVI – at the beginning of the XVII centuries and the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people headed by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Peter Doroshenko, Gajdamacks movements and etc. Attracting the reader's attention to these events, P. Kulish, especially in the his youth, taking part in the Cyril and Methodius organization, intended to awake in the contemporaries interest to the history of his people by the heroic deeds of the grandfathers and great-grandfathers . He was proud of the Zaporozhye Cossacks struggle against social and national oppression. In the Cossack life, he saw the power of the Ukrainian people, their love of freedom and the pursuit of a happy life. The researcher tried to move those traditions in the present and to intensify them. This feature characterized Taras Shevchenko works. Praised him historical events and heroes of the past inspired to active fight against the landlords and autocracy and gifted the faith in themselves. Highlighting the struggle of the people masses against their oppressors in the past, P. Kulish emphasized the love of freedom of the Ukrainian people, its love for its homeland, the constant desire for freedom and a happy life, self-sacrifice and heroism in combat with the enemy. Analyzing peasant Cossack uprising in Ukraine at the end XVI – the beginning of the XVII, the Russian and Ukrainian noble historiography wanted to hide the truly reasons of them. Ignoring the social factors, they were usually eager to prove that the basis of these uprisings had been the Ukrainian nation fight against the forcible Polonizing and the desire of South Russ to become under the banner of the Russian Tsar. P. Kulish respected P. Konashevich Sagaydachny as a Cossack father, and as a shrewd diplomat in relations with Poland, and as a supporter of protectorate over Ukraine from Russia, and as loyal subjects of the Orthodox Church, and the organizer of Ukrainian people of Crimean Turkish aggression. The researcher appreciated P. Sagaidachny for his patriotism, sensitivity to the needs of its people. It seemed to him that in more favorable circumstances the hetman could solve the Ukrainian problem better than B. Khmelnitsky. So P. Kulish understood that the peasant and Cossack revolts were against feudal and aimed to defense the national dignity and maintain their own faith. According to P. Kulish, pious clergy, militant Orthodox Church inspired his supporters not to fear death and above all respect freedom. The main motives of future revolutionary events at the end of the XVI – the beginning of the XVII centuries were the Orthodox church, religious factors. During his life, P. Kulish changed his views on the role and place in the history of Ukrainian historical figures; the reasons which led to peasant-Cossack protests in Ukraine in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries, including the Ukrainian National Revolution 1648-1676; the essence of historical relations between Ukraine, Poland and Russia etc.
More...
The birthplace of the Christmas tree is the territory of the Aleman people, thus the territories of Baden and Alsace along the upper part of the river Rhine. Its direct predecessors are the maypole trees during winter and Christmas time, thus the branches of pine trees with which the houses, economical and agricultural buildings, fences and wells along the upper Rhine were decorated inside and out during the midwinter festivities (Christmas, New Year etc). According to a medieval legal principle in upper Alsace, the peasants had the right to bring a cartful of wood (branches of pine trees in the first place) on Christmas Eve from the forest. Written legal principles and customs recording this habit can be found in many cities of upper Alsace: Sundhofen (around 1300), Bergheim (1369), Germar (14th century). The habit of decorating houses with evergreen branches at Christmas is in Strasbourg and Freiburg 500 years old. The cities of the Alsace region have guarded their forests in the days before the midwinter festivities against thieves. We know of a bill of a sum paid to the foresters guarding the forests at St. Thomas’s day (21st December) in Schlettstadt (1521). The judge of Sankt Pilt did put the forest of the city under heavy guard for nine days before and after Christmas, because of a legal principle of the upper Alsace (14th century). The cities and landowners tried to keep the number and size of the may-pole trees meant to be cut for Christmas via decrees at bay. Türkheim has in 1611 decreed that anyone who cuts out more than one tree for Christmas has to pay a fine. In a legal principle at Adolsheim (1431) the landowner has allowed the cutting of a 7 feet tall pine tree. The great size of the may-pole trees shows that they are no more branches to decorate a room or small trees hanging from the ceiling, but big Christmas trees standing in the house or in the open. In Strasbourg the sale of Christmas tree began in 1539. According to their accounts, the wealthy house of Sichenheim did pay for pine trees and branches. The cathedral of Strasbourg did have a standing Christmas tree in the same year. The manuscript A few sights from Strasbourg (1604 or 1605) describes many decorated Christmas trees in guild houses of artisans. The Christmas tree was also popular in Freiburg (14th century): The town council was forced to fine those who cut may-pole trees for Christmas illegally. In the town hospital to the Holy Spirit the bakers decorated a large Christmas tree, which remained untouched until New Year. Its edible decorations, cakes, fruits were distributed among the poor at the Christmas-tree festivities in the 17th–18th centuries. The accounts of the hospital show that between 1625 and 1773 they had always expenses for the decoration of the Christmas tree. The historical clues show us that the Christmas tree was a popular habit on both sides of the upper Rhine in the 16th century among the Protestants and the Catholic Christians as well.
More...
Royal universal is researched as mass communication tool at the paper. The purpose of the paper is to determine the level of communicative efficiency of the royal universal for the early modern polish society. For this the author found the elements of communicative efficiency of the document and applied them to the royal universales. As a result the author writes about significant, but not perfect, level of communicative efficiency of the royal universal. Technical elements of communicative efficiency of the royal universal had not always been used. Besides that, early modern polish society (especially nobility) did not comply with all orders, which were in the royal universales.
More...
The paper is a short summary of the main archaeological outcomes of an interdisciplinary project in a section of the Drava river crossing the territory of Somogy county, in Hungary. One of the study areas is the vicinity of Berzence where medieval settlement patterns, land use and economy have been reconstructed on the basis of historical sources and an archaeological field survey. A comprehensive review of architectural history and material culture of the Ottoman Period stronghold in Barcs was the other area under investigation. Research there was based on written sources and the archaeological assemblage recovered from the palisaded fort. Zooarchaeological research at this site revealed some significant culture historical aspects of this stronghold. Underwater archaeological investigations carried out in the Drava river itself and aerial exploration of the study areas also supplied valuable archaeological results.
More...
The main subject of this article is the relationship between the Ottoman state and semi-nomadic groups in the Ottoman Danubian frontier zone (serhad) in the late 15th and the first half of the 16th century. Taking the two extremities of the Danubian frontier zone – the provinces of Smederevo in Serbia and Silistre in the northeastern Balkans – as case studies, the article compares the ways in which the Ottoman state dealt with semi-nomadic Vlachs at one end of the frontier zone and Turcoman yürüks (and related groups) at the other. Placing the subject in the broader context of the historical development of the Danubian frontier zone, the author analyzes the Ottoman state’s changing policies toward these two groups. Taking into account the largely different historical legacies and demographic make-ups, the article analyzes the many commonalities (as well as some important differences) in the way the Ottoman government integrated such groups in its administrative structure. It highlights the process in which such semi-nomadic groups, traditionally utilized by the Ottoman state as auxiliary soldiers, were gradually “tamed” by the state in the course of the 16th century, becoming gradually sedentarized and losing their privileged status.
More...
The paper aims to explore the scenario of lay-clerical conflicts and their negotiations by reading petitions of pardon handed in to the papal curia in the late fifteenth and early 16th century from the Kingdom of Hungary. In course of the negotiation of violent conflicts, which very often entailed the killing of a priest, ordinary laymen and members of the rural pastoral clergy alike fabricated stories which they thought would best serve the forgiveness of their sins. However, as the paper argues, the act of petitioning to the papal curia in fact served other ‘non-official’ functions in the process of conflict negotiation. In the gaps of these short narratives we can detect that lay-clerical everyday disputes were in fact neighborhood conflicts deriving from their close co-existence.
More...
The Habsburg monarchy was conceived in 1527 as a borderland when the Ottoman march into the Pannonian plain united the Austrian, Bohemian and Hungarian lands. The latter’s vulnerability encouraged a consensual relationship between the Habsburg court and domestic elites that positioned Hungary’s political system between “western” European absolutism and the anarchical “royal republicanism” of Poland. The Habsburg claim to the entire kingdom helped sustain the vision of a united patrimony, ultimately realized following the triumph over the Ottomans and definitively confirmed in 1867. The combination of Hungary’s borderline character and competing jurisdictions contributed to political instability during the 16th and 17th centuries. Only after the Habsburgs had pushed the Ottomans from the Hungarian plain, did the frontier begin a more conventional evolution. In a move that was a clear break with previous frontier arrangements, the Habsburgs and Ottomans clearly separated their territorial jurisdiction by drawing and demarcating the boundary that pacified the frontier regime more in keeping with general developments in Europe. Outer borders gradually assumed new functions. The permanent sanitary cordon that the Hasburgs established in 1728 along its entire length remained an unparalleled public health institution, effectively blocking the spread of plague from the Ottoman Balkans. In addition, it served as a migration control institution, signaling the ongoing transition to a modern international frontier, which would have been unimaginable without its mobility control function. This spacial transformation encouraged the kingdom’s recovery and re-population, as well as its transition from a “borderland” into the “heart of Europe”. The simultaneous colonization of Hungary from the west and southeast stimulated its economic and demographic recovery, while compounding its linguistic and ethnic diversity, particularly in border areas, thereby contributing to its dissolution in the age of nationalism.
More...
This article describes two Slavonic manuscripts now at the Benedictine Abbey at Pannonhalma. One is a Gospel book of Ruthenian origin, written in the seventeenth century, and the other the Acts and Epistles, written in Serbia towards the end of the sixteenth century. Both are fairly typical examples of such books, and in a reasonably good state of preservation. The Gospel book contains a number of inscriptions providing information about its history, and in particular connecting it with the village of Ivaškovicja in the Transcarpathian oblasť of the Ukraine. It is a further step towards a complete description of Cyrillic manuscripts in Hungary.
More...
The Szeged Minea is a festal minea written in the Church Slavic language in the second half of the 16th century. Its text was published in the series Bibliotheca Slavica Savariensis edited by Professor Károly Gadányi. A new folio belonging to this manuscript was recently found, so the text edited hereafter can be considered an addendum to the earlier edition.
More...
On February 4th 1564 a long letter was sent from Perugia to Piero Machiavelli, Luogotenente generale of the Tuscan fleet in Leghorn, by a certain Antonio Pandolfi. The letter ignited the interest of Romanian historians, as it contains detailed and accurate information pertaining to the history of Moldavia, covering the period from 1546 to 1563. Although Antonio Pandolfi’s text was edited twice, the editors had real difficulties in identifying the author’s background and sources. This paper aims to fill the lack of knowledge on these two major issues and to provide a possible explanation for the reasons behind Pandolfi’s initiative. Using new information, the article contends that Antonio Pandolfi was a Florentine merchant who lived in the Polish town of Lviv between 1550 and 1577. He was involved in trading operations on the Moldavian and Ottoman markets and it is in this way that he gathered the valuable information provided later to the Machiavellis. As for the aims of Antonio Pandolfi’s letter, the article suggests it was part of a strategy meant to draw upon him the protection of the powerful Machiavelli family, an efficient tool to cope with the professional difficulties he had to face back home in Lviv.
More...
The article deals with the main principles according to which Mongolian sounds are rendered into Chinese in the Sino-Mongolian glossary Dada yu/Beilu yiyu (late 16th–early 17th century) where one of the late Middle Mongolian dialects is reflected. Three such principles are distinguished by the author: (1) principle of phonetic identity (the Chinese and Mongolian segments completely coincide with each other by their features); (2) principle of phonetic substitution in its two varieties: weak phonetic substitution (the Chinese and Mongolian segments differ from each other in only one distinctive feature) and strong phonetic substitution (the Chinese and Mongolian segments are distinguished from each other by two or more features); (3) principle of zero marking (the Mongolian segment is in no way rendered into the Chinese transcription because of the impossibility of its notation by means of Chinese). The influence of different stages of the phonetic development of Chinese on the glossary’s system of transcriptions is also emphasised, such as Standard Chinese, Late Ming Guanhua, and Ancient Mandarin.
More...
The actually standing Calvinist church of Boldva is of a royal founding. The building functioned as a Benedictine abbey around 1175–1180. The archaeological excavations conducted between 1976 and 1982 uncovered 68 graves within the church. A 14–16 years old girl lay in grave no. 21 in perfectly preserved renaissance clothes. She probably died in 1567 or 1568 and she was a member of the Putnoky family of the Rátót clan. This family owned Boldva until 1570, and then the Basó family owned it for about 160 years. The girl’s uncle Mihály Basó lay in grave no. 14 and her mother Klára Basó in grave no. 17.
More...
The main purpose of the paper is to present and discuss some Keckermann’s thoughts on history and the art of historiography, expressed in the treatise De natura et proprietatibus historiae commentarius (Hanovie 1610), published posthumously by his student, David Schumann. According to the humanist from Gdańsk, history is not art, science, or discipline, because it does not have own commonplaces (loci communes), regarded as the basis for method. Nevertheless, history plays an important role in teaching of the practical arts such as politics or economy, because it is an inexhaustible source of examples, taken from narratives about the past events to illustrate general rules related to human life and actions. An excellent historian would be only someone who is able to combine searching for the truth with frankness in its telling. Therefore, he is obliged to use a simple style without almost any rhetorical devices. In relation to single events history serves as a tool of description and explication. Thus it provides the necessary illustrative material in the form of examples for the practical disciplines.
More...
In his Satyr, or The Wild Man Jan Kochanowski refers to two old-time customs: first that, during the mass, at the reading of the Gospel, old Poles were to half draw their swords in token of their readiness to defend the Christian faith (vv. 185–200), and the second that infamists were punished upon their honour in such a way that when they sat at table with other people, the host cut the tablecloth to indicate that he did not want to share a meal with them (vv. 231–236). The article analyses numerous references to those customs in the old-Polish literature (unanimously attesting to the lack of these rituals in the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries), to indicate that both were literary legends.
More...
The object of this article is the contents of the notes of Elias Maior, a rector of St. Elizabeth’s gymnasium in Wrocław, made in the consecutive 1640–1669 Schreibkalenders. They constitute a rich source documenting everyday life of Wrocław’s humanistic elite. Of particular interest, among the rector’s accounts, are numerous references to music performed, both in public and in private domain.
More...
The Ottomans occupied Bonyhád and its surroundings probably during the imperial campaign of 1543. The first survey of the region was made in 1546, followed by three additional ones during the 16th century (1552, 1570 and 1579). The territory under investigation first belonged to the sancak of Mohács, later to that of Pécs. Nearly all studied settlements could be found in all four defters . Thus some 20 places were categorised according to various criteria. It turned out that as far as population, the amount of taxes paid and wine-production are concerned, the market town ( oppidum ) Nádasd was the most significant. Though only a village at the time, Bonyhád also ranked among the first in several respects. The examination of settlements with mills, fairs and markets and of the number of priests yielded new results, modifying in part our knowledge of the Middle Ages.
More...
In the 16th century, there were two vilayets in Hungary; their number increased to four at the turn of the 17th century and to six after 1660. The largest of them, the vilayet of Buda, was loss-making throughout the period, with the exception of a few years. The Buda vilayet received financial support from the central treasury during the 16th century and from the campaign treasury during the Long War at the turn of the 17th century. Subsequently, in the 17th century, roughly 70 per cent of its military expenditure was covered by state revenues from the Balkan Peninsula. In the latter decades of the 16th century, the Temeşvar vilayet produced a financial surplus. It suffered financial woes during the war at the turn of the century but recovered thereafter. In the early 17th century, the Eger vilayet used its own revenue to pay for more than half of its costs, but the losses of the Kanija vilayet resembled those of Buda. The Varad vilayet in the east of the country was financially self-sufficient, while the Uyvar vilayet , established in the approaches to Vienna, was funded entirely by the central treasury. To sum up: in the stricken western vilayets , which were devastated by the military campaigns, local revenues met no more than one third of military costs; meanwhile, the three eastern vilayets , which were less affected by conflict, were for the most part self-sufficient.
More...
Scholarly literature on the late mediaeval and early modern Levantine trade has it that in the 14th–15th centuries eastern spices and other “maritime (Levantine) goods” arrived in Hungary not from Venice, but mainly from the Dalmatian towns of the Adriatic Sea, through the so-called route of Zara (Zadar). The author of this article tries to point out that out of these two western trade routes the so-called Venezianerstrasse connecting Tarvisio and Vienna from where the eastern goods were transported to Hungary was far more important. Then he demonstrates the existence and significance of the spice route leading from the Black Sea via Wallachia to Transylvania and then further to the interior of Hungary. Thirdly, he establishes that at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries the quantity of pepper imported from the direction of the Black Sea was four-and-a-half to five times as much as the pepper arriving from the direction of the Adriatic Sea. In the second part of the article, the author outlines the crucial changes in 16th-century commerce. The trade of eastern spices from Wallachia via Transylvania to Hungary continued for a while, but then gradually diminished and finally ebbed away in the second half of the century. They were replaced by “Turkish goods” (different cotton and silk fabrics, yarns and leather ware) which originated from the Ottoman Empire and not from the Far East. Simultaneously, along with the revival of the Levantine spice trade of Venice, the Venezianerstrasse also regained its significance and the pepper import from Vienna to Western and Northern Hungary was also restored. At about the same time, a new and abundant trade route opened up towards Buda from Constantinople through Belgrade — mainly with new (Muslim and Orthodox) mediators. The various spices and “Turkish articles” arrived mainly on this route, a part of which travelled further west (in Habsburg Hungary and Vienna as well). By the middle of the 17th century a radical turn had taken place in international spice trade: from that time onward, eastern spices were transported to Hungary and further to Vienna not from Constantinople, but the other way round, they arrived from Vienna through Hungary to Constantinople.
More...