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The monarchal camp between the years 1765 and 1771 consistently disapproved of all images of love of the homeland that had a traditionalist and republican character. Representatives of this fraction, i.e. of the pro-royal orientation, adopted for their programs the ideas of love of the homeland that functioned as early as the first half of the 18th century. And even though they enriched with new elements the thought they had borrowed, they did it in a marginal way. First of all they expressed their criticism of the existing models. I think that the criticism set the authors free of the irrational and non-reflective view typical of the group. Identifying the homeland with the institution of the state, representatives of the group centered around the person of the King, including the monarch himself, used the argument of not observing the law by the confederates as a manifestation of non-patriotic behavior.
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In the focus of the article is the art collection of the Vilnius coadjutor bishop Józef Stanisław Sapieha, with a particular emphasis on its representational nature. The basic sources of reference are the inventory of Sapieha’s posthumous property of 1754 held at the Manuscript Department of Vasyl Stefanyk Lviv National Scientific Library of Ukraine, correspondence and other sources. The collection is compared with the art collections of other eighteenthcentury collectors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the hierarchs of the Catholic Church and the closest relatives of the Sapieha family. The proximity of the Sapieha collection to the collections of representatives of the social elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 18th century is revealed. The collection contains numerous religious images, relics and other devotional objects, and its large part is comprised of examples of secular painting, mainly portraits, which represent their owner not only as a high ranking clergyman, but also as a member of a noble family. Landscapes and animalistic works, less common to earlier collections of clergymen, testify to the general changes of contents in the 18th century collections of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and a change in the understanding of a valuable and prestigious collection gradually taking place in society. Rich and diverse in terms of genre, Sapieha’s collection is probably one of the most extraordinary in the history of clergymen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Placed in the context of the earlier tradition of bishops’ collections, it reveals the taste of a clergyman of the late Baroque period and the increasingly secular character of his collection in the culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the dawn of the age of Enlightenment.
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The article includes a translation and critical assessment of the orator Martin Bredt's family chronicle written in the Transylvanian town of Reghin in the eighteenth-century. A copy of the chronicle can be found in the Transylvanian Archives in Gundelsheim am Neckar, Germany. The article presents the historical and social context in which the chronicle was written, the composition of the town council of which Bredt was a member, as well as the chronicle's scientific importance for the history of Reghin. Despite being of secondary importance, the chronicle still provides valuable data on the town's history before 1848 when its archives perished in a fire. Therefore, it fills certain gaps regarding the construction of the local Roman Catholic church, the settlement of Catholic families in a predominantly Lutheran town, natural event and the expansion of the town's limits. Moreover, the chronicle reinforces and complements data provided by other sources on Reghin and its surroundings at the end of the eighteenth century. The text of the chronicle reminds of the Humanistic tradition in which the recount of a town's history is combined with the description of buildings and the enumeration of functionaries.
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The author tries, by means of case studies, to approach the problem of landowning in the case of citizens. The topic has not enjoyed by now, in the Romanian historiography, special investigation, being only tangentially dealt with, most of the times in relation to the citizens’ aspiration to gain access to the boyars’ social category. From this standpoint, in the absence of a more thorough analysis, the acquiring of lands by the citizens tends to be interpreted rather as a mandatory phase in legitimating a future ennoblement, while the economic motivation of landowning is passed over. By researching the content of several documents from the collection of volumes about the history of the city of Iaşi and of a number of unpublished acts from the National Archives of Iaşi, the author tried to reconstruct, partially at least, the destiny of two families of merchants that owned, in the 18th century, two estates near Iaşi (Roşcani and Găureni). At the same time, the author attempted an identification of the reasons – particularly the economic ones – why some merchants, inhabitants of the cities of Iaşi and Botoşani, with business relations in Transylvania and Poland, became owners of large estates neighbouring the city.
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The Russian-Moldavian-Ottoman War of 1711 was one of the shortest in European history, actually a campaign with a few skirmishes and a gruesome battle around a fortified wagon camp. The political and military aspects of this event have been analyzed by historians over the years. This article focuses on one element which was avoided by all until now – the Moldavian army, its composition, numbers, weapons, tactics, effectiveness. The first material of this kind, the article brings together all available sources from the period, to try and build a comprehensive image of an army showing to be caught between two periods: the Middle Ages and the modern period.
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The text clarifies doubts concerning the Circular (1701) written by Bishop Petronije Ljubibratić from the Savina Monastery. For more than a hundred years, confusion was caused with the published version of the document and the incorrectly stated signatory – Bishop Stefan Ljubibratić. During our research in the Savina Monastery, we determined that the published content of the document was correct, but that its signatory was undoubtedly Bishop Petronije, and not Stefan Ljubibratić. We had an additional confirmation in a rather well preserved seal on the document. It was possible to read most of the content and outline of the seal.
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The census of households of Serbian Orthodox priests in the Gradiška regiment was carried out by regiment military authorities in 1760, during the Seven Years’ War. Their aim was to point to the increase in the number of privileged households in the territory of the regiment compared to the earlier census of 1756. Owing to the spiritual status of one of their members, these households enjoyed immunity and were exempted from tax and military duties. The census published here is one of the few which recorded all men living in Serbian priest households. As such, it helps us learn about the size and structure of these households. In addition to data about the number of family members, names, age and military status of male members, the census also contains data on arable surfaces owned by the households (ploughed fields, meadows and orchards). The census covered 41 priests from 19 Serbian settlements. A difference was made between the “old” (16) and “new“ (25) priests, depending on whether they were ordained before or after 1756. Referring to earlier bans on an increase in the number of Orthodox priests, the military authorities believed that male members of new priest households should be treated as conscripts, just as they were before some of their members were ordained priests. In contrast, the Bishop of Pakrac required that all members of priest families be considered privileged, regardless of whether their representatives were “old” or “new” priests, i.e. priests with or without parishes. The view of the church representatives had greater weight despite the disagreements. Based on the census, 176 persons in “new” priest households had to be exempted from the customary military service, while the privileged position of the “old” priests and their household members was already taken into account. The fact that these households, as a rule, had a greater number of members than the households of their parishioners played an important role in the conflict between the military authorities and the Orthodox clergy concerning military and tax duties of male members of priest families. A household of a Serbian Orthodox priest in the Gradiška regiment had 7.18 men on average, of whom 4.29 were adult men (above 16), while around a fifth of households covered by the census had between ten and 16 male members.
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The dissatisfaction of the Serbian population in the Habsburg monarchy culminated in 1777 over the changes in the organisation and internal relations of the Karlovci Metropolitanate, including in the field of national church and cultural-educational life, introduced under the pressure of state authorities. Metropolitan Vićentije Jovanović Vidak was invited to the Court to explain in detail the reasons for the Serbs’ dissatisfaction. During his stay in Vienna, he received a great number of complaints of Serbian municipalities against the reform and the Regulament – the law on the Serbian Orthodox Church adopted in January 1777. Based on the complaints received, he compiled a comprehensive petition and submitted it to the Court in February 1778. Three complaints of Serbian municipalities from Srem, presented in this paper, were also part of well-organised and coordinated activities against the reform. The timing of the complaints from the villages of Jazak, Grabovo and Ležimir shows that the activities of the Serbian municipalities began before the Metropolitan departed to Vienna, confirming that he was behind the protest. The documents contain general remarks of the Serbs against the reform, including the aspects especially burdening each of the municipalities. What is particularly important is that the documents were signed by all adult male inhabitants.
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The document that we present here is housed in The Ottoman Archives of the Prime Minister's Office in Istanbul (İstanbul, Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi, Gayri Müslimler Dinî ve Hayrî İşler Kalemi Belgeleri (A.DVN.KLS) dosya 1, vesika n. 37). That is the report of the kadi of Šabac relating to the restoration of the church in the Mačva village of Crna Bara compiled on 2 July 1781. It is diplomatically classified into the category of ilams (i‘lām) – court reports with the proposal to solve a problem, submitted by a kadi or his representative naib to higher authorities. The procedure of the permit issuance depended on the scope of the work. The permit for smaller repairs was usually issued by the vali – the highest state authority for a particular area. Upon the completion of works, a commission would go to the scene, draw up a report and submit it to the kadi. The kadi would forward it, along with his opinion, to the vali. The governor of a province would then issue the buyruldi confirming that the repair was in line with law and that no one had the right to make additional inspections. In the case of the restoration of the church in Crna Bara, members of the commission disagreed because the mubashir, appointed by the Belgrade vali, tried to extort a bribe. Namely, even before the commission prepared a joint report on repairs of the church in Crna Bara, the mubashir sent to the vali a separate opinion that the church was expanded compared to its previous state. As the Belgrade vizier then ordered that the inhabitants of Crna Bara and the surrounding villages be apprehended, it is clear that he sided with his mubashir. In this case, the kadi of Šabac had to address the central authorities as the danger loomed that people would leave their villages, fearing prison and other punishments. The church in Crna Bara is one of the oldest churches in Mačva. It existed in the 18th century, as attested by this Ottoman document as well. The Turks destroyed it at the time of the First Serbian Uprising on 4/16 May 1809. After the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815, instead of Crna Bara, a church was built in the neighbouring village of Glogovac, where the priests from Crna Bara served during the 19th century. The present-day church in Crna Bara is dedicated to the Ascension of the Lord and was officially consecrated in 1927.
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The article deals with previously unknown aspects of contacts of Serbian officers with Russia at the beginning of the XVIII century. In 1703, in a visit to Russia Serbian Captain A. Leshevich offered the tsarist government the participation of the Serbian armed forces in the war against the Ottoman Empire. The article contains previously unknown facts about the arrival of colonel P. Bozic in Russia (in 1708), seeking permission from the tsarist government for the the creation of the Serbian regiment on Russian-Turkish border.
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The text deals with the attempts of Orthodox Christian Serbs in Dalmatia and Boka to obtain the right to have a bishop for these areas in the XVIII century, under Venetian rule. The Savina Monastery was an important stronghold of the fight, as well as a religious, political and spiritual center of Orthodox Serbs in the XVIIIcentury Boka, at the time when there was neither a state nor church organization there. Bishops Savatije and Stefan Ljubibratić were active within the Monastery and persistently attempted to solve the issue of the Bishop of Dalmatia and Boka. Entrepreneurial priors of Savina, above all Archimandrite Leontije Rajović and Prior Arsenije Milutinović, would later continue to fight for the same cause. A large repository of unpublished Venetian XVIII-century archive material, most of it stored in the Archive of Herceg-Novi and Archive of the Savina Monastery, enabled us to complete the answers to many questions about this subject, to shed light on the roles of the mentioned persons, as well as to eliminate certain doubts and inaccuracies.
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1. “Što je prosvjetiteljstvo?” To zna svatko tko je pomoću para otvorenih očiju naučio spoznavati u čemu se sastoji razlika između svijetlog i tamnog, svjetla i tame. U tami se ili ne vidi ništa ili barem ne tako jasno da bi se moglo stvarno spoznavati predmete i razlikovati ih jedne od drugih. Čim se donese svjetlo, stvari postaju jasne, postaju vidljive i mogu se razlikovati jedne od drugih. Ipak su za to nužno potrebne dvije stvari: 1) da je prisutno dovoljno svjetla, i 2) da oni, koji pri tome trebaju gledati, nisu ni slijepi ni bolesni od žutice, ni spriječeni bilo kakvim drugim uzrokom, da mogu vidjeti ili žele vidjeti...
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This paper examines the Habsburg personnel policy in the Austrian Banat during and after the Austro-Russian-Turkish War (17361739). The war-ravaged region was affected massively by the confrontations between the Ottoman and Habsburg armies. Of central importance is the question how the Viennese court involved the local imperial civil and military personnel for war purposes. The investigation focuses on a range of tasks which had been conducted by low- and high-ranking officials as well as facets of personnel restructuring that became necessary during the conflicts and as repercussions of the war. Special attention is paid to the analysis of personnel management processes, which was made possible by the use of selected case studies.
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The historical and political context in which Lamartine began its journey to the East was considered as parallel events in Europe and the Muslim world from the time of the Revolution of 1789 until about the departure of Lamartine in the East. Lamartine became aware of the situation of the Ottoman Empire during his trip to the East. He seized on the spot the ethnic chaos that was then the Ottoman Empire. Lamartine reflects on the role that France could play against the agony of the Ottoman Empire. The stages of the journey partly correspond to those of Chateaubriand (Greece, Palestine, Constantinople), but Lamartine added Syria (including current Lebanon), where it remains several months and he returned by horse through Bulgaria, Serbia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The famous "Eastern Question" is the term used in France to describe the involvement of various European powers (mainly France, England and Russia), due to the difficulties of the Ottoman Empire in the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkan Europe. This is, in fact, the question of the fate of the Ottoman empire in dismemberment, which is the subject of the concerns of the major European powers: Russians want to control the Balkans, the English wish to protect their commercial interests by controlling isthmus between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, the French keep their privileges in the Levant.
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Wzięcie przez Austrię udziału w I rozbiorze Polski stanowiło duży cios dla Stolicy Apostolskiej. Jedno z czołowych obok Francji mocarstw katolickich, dotychczas filar katolickiego „koncertu południowego” przyłączyło się do agresywnych państw akatolickich „koncertu północnego” dokonujących agresji na Rzeczypospolitą. Papiestwo świadome zagrożenia już wcześniej, usiłowało interweniować w obronie zagrożonego statusu Kościoła katolickiego i suwerenności Rzeczypospolitej, lecz zabiegi te zakończyły się fiaskiem. W zaistniałej sytuacji, nie mogąc przeciwdziałać rozbiorowi, Stolica Apo-stolska skupiła swoje wysiłki na obronie Kościoła i katolików zagrożonych represyjną polityką nie tylko pod zaborem rosyjskim, lecz także austriackim. Z drugiej strony wobec ograniczonych możliwości działania Rzym szukał, często z pozytywnym skutkiem, sprzymierzeńca w osobie cesarzowej Marii Teresy, której interwencje w Petersburgu często okazywały się skuteczne. Dlatego też wydarzenia jakie miały miejsce na ziemiach zagarniętych przez Cesarstwo śledzone były z wielkim zainteresowaniem przez dyplomację papieską usiłującą interweniować w sprawie zagrożonego statusu Kościoła katolickiego na tych ziemiach, jak i wiernych represjonowanych przez administrację i armię austriacką. Jakkolwiek szeregu kwestii nie załatwiono po myśli Rzymu, to jednak w szeregu istotnych wypadków dotyczących obrony represjonowanych duchownych i wiernych, czy uprawnień jurysdykcyjnych Kościoła osiągnięto sukcesy zmniejszające uciążliwość rządów zaborcy austriackiego.
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The Ottoman Empire was included in the modern diplomatic system with the first permanent embassy opened in London in 1793. The developments took place during the eighteenth century were also effective in this decision of the Ottomans. The transition process to modern diplomacy, which started with the signing of the Karlowitz Treaty (1699), was completed with Sistovo (1791) and Jassy (1792) treaties in the last decade of the century.The success of the Ottoman diplomats against the crisis that arises during the Sistovo and Jassy negotiations and their attitude during this period was followed from the contemporary sources. By this study, it was tried to show that the Ottoman Empire professionally used the diplomatic tools during the Ottoman-Russian and Austrian War (1787-1792) and during the peace negotiations. As a result, both negotiations have been described as the last step in the modern diplomatic transition of the Ottoman Empire.
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