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Although roots of franchising can be found in the 10th century (King Edgar and beer places) and in the first half of the 19th century in Germany, the first representatives of modern franchising can be found in the USA in the second part of the 19th century (Singer Sewing Center, General Motors and Coca-Cola) (Erceg, 2017). In the second part of the 20th century, there was a new phase of franchising development – business format franchise, which was introduced by McDonald’s and Ray Kroc. Business format franchising gained popularity and was spread worldwide by American fast food restaurants (McDonald’s, Subway, Dunkin Donuts, etc.). These fast food restaurant franchisors demonstrated to other service industries how to standardize and replicate successful business systems (Alon, 2014). Franchising entered countries in Eastern Europe at the end of 1980s and the beginning of 1990s when those countries switched to a market economy and allowed entrance of foreign companies and capital. It was then that the franchising revolution started, mainly by foreign franchisors entering the country, thus initiating actions of local entrepreneurs who started using franchising as a growth strategy as well.
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Critical thinking is a dominant concept in educational improvements that call forinstitutes to place a greater emphasis on skills that are used in all subject areasand that students can apply in all educational, career, and civic situationsthroughout their lives.
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This study is concerned with Lodz – a city that from the 19th century was called a promised land. The aim of this chapter is to present the historical determinants of its growth and to provide an analysis of the socio-economic changes that took place in this city after the decline of communism. Lodz was set up in the 15th century, but for the first 400 years it functioned as a mainly agricultural settlement. The government decision established it in 1823 as a textile industry city. Its population grew from 800 at the beginning of the 19th century to over 300 thousand at the end of the century, when Lodz became Poland’s second largest city and a major centre of industry. Up to 1989, the development of Lodz was based on the textile industry and the related branches. In 1989, communism in Poland fell and socio-economic transformation began. In consequence, Poland lost its eastern markets, which had always been of key importance for the condition of the textile industry of Lodz. This factor, along with industrial backwardness, contributed to the decline of the textile industry, which from the 19th century constituted the economic base of the city. The fall of industry was accompanied by depopulation, which caused Lodz to become the most quickly shrinking of the large Polish cities. After 2000, new industrial branches and services started developing in the city. The favourable factors that contributed to this include Poland’s accession to the EU (2004), good location in terms of transport connections, industrial traditions, a special economic zone, and low prices of land and office space. This paper presents the stages in the development of Lodz, and changes of its place in Poland’s settlement network hierarchy. It also discusses current problems of this city resulting from socio-economic changes after 1989, and identifies further development opportunities and directions.
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Demographic changes characterised by the increasing participation of the elderly in society pose a challenge to public policies implemented by local and regional government. At present, people aged 60+ constitute over 25% of the total population inPoland. Therefore, the challenge is to meet the needs of this but also to use the potential of older people. The study aims to analyze the legal conditions for conducting senior policy at the national level and strategic documents adopted at the regional and local level in terms of improving the seniors’ quality of life. The study consists of an introduction presenting current demographic trends and related challenges faced by public authorities. It follows the legal conditions of senior policy in Poland. In the next part, using the desk research method, a review of public policies adopted in the Lodz region and in city of Lodz, was carried out, which allowed to assess to what extent local and regional authorities take into account in their policies the challenges related to the growing participation of older people in society. Then an attempt was made to create a map of stakeholders operating in the area of broadly understood senior policy in Lodz. The summary contains conclusions from the analysis and recommendations regarding solutions enabling the implementation of senior policy in a more integrated way and future research in this field.
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The study attempts to identify and review the historical, contemporary and expected as well as predicted directions of spatial development pattern of Lodz analyzed from the perspective of a strategic approach to city planning and management. The development of Lodz, which remained (despite being granted city rights on July 29, 1423) for several centuries as a small settlement located on the Piotrkow route by the local river (Lodka), was subjected in subsequent periods of its development to various conditions and strategic challenges, changing at “critical points” history of the city, which was reflected in the functional and spatial transformations of the city. Such conditions were undoubtedly the inclusion of Lodz into the group of industrial settlements in 1820, and then (already in the centrally planned economy system) the development of a specific “monoculture” of light (textile) industry in Lodz (resulting in the “addition” of new residential and industrial districts to the city), and finally, the systemic socio-economic transformation of Lodz taking place in a shocking manner after 1989. The systemic, socio-economic transformation became a contribution and the necessity to search for a new vision and strategic directions for the city’s development, also in the spatial dimension. This was reflected in subsequent planning documents such as: The local general spatial development plan for Lodz from 1993, studies of the conditions and directions of spatial development in Lodz from the years 2002, 2010, 2018, as well as other strategic studies, in particular the Strategy for the integrated development of Lodz 2020+ (adopted in 2012) along with its eight sectoral policies, including the Strategy for the spatial development of Lodz 2020+ (adopted in 2013). Strategic development plans prepared by local government authorities was accompanied by the preparation of several other expert studies, including one promoting the concept of development of metropolitan functions in Lodz, in particular in the context of the postulated bipolar agglomeration – the Warsaw-Lodz functional area (Warsaw-Lodz metropolitan area), which also impacted on the directions of spatial development of the city, in particular by identifying key investments from this perspective, mainly related to the development of transport infrastructure. In the spatial dimension, after 1989, the objectives of the spatial policy of Lodz focused mainly on the protection of areas important for the city’s identity and undertaking revitalization activities related to the renewal of post-industrial areas located in the city center zone. The problem was (and still is) stopping the spread of development in the outer areas of Lodz (as expressed in the Studies of the conditions and directions of spatial development in Lodz from 2010). Nowadays, the key development challenge of the city is the growing depopulation, which is accompanied by quite dramatic efforts of local authorities aimed at building the image of a dynamically developing, modern city, reflected in various investments related to, among other things, the modernization of urban spaces (especially public) and planning of new attractive areas for further investments of economic importance. However, these activities are accompanied by the chaotic sale of municipal land and plots located outside zones of strategic importance, which is becoming a source of local conflicts. Among other challenges, which so far have rather little impact on strategic directions of urban development, one can point out the effects of climate change and changes in spatial behavior of the population, resulting from the dissemination of new technologies of remote communication, work, trade or the use of private and public services (significantly accelerated by the state of an infectious pandemic COVID-19 disease). These conditions were indicated in the study as the key strategic challenges that ought to imply the directions of development of Lodz, including in the spatial dimension
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City – a socio-economic and spatial system with its own unique and characteristic structure. The city’s structure varies in time and space. It is defined by the built environment and spatial structure, but also by the users of the city, including the local community, its activities, including economic, cultural, political and many other factors. Among the elements of a city’s structure in the modern world, city identity is a major focus in renewal processes. City identity is understood in a multi-faceted, multifaceted way. This concept is linked to the tradition and permanence of values, landscapes, buildings, cultures and social behaviour, historically transposed but also experienced in the present and, importantly, linked to a specific and defined space, shaped by successive generations. In the city’s identity lies a great strength and potential to strengthen and stimulate the city’s development processes. Identity, linked to tangible and intangible heritage, becomes thefoundation of development and a factor that strengthens the city’s economic base. Without a strong sense of identity, it is difficult to build strong economic mechanisms. Lodz, a city that has been constantly reinventing itself throughout its history, and in particular from the time when industrial settlements were established here in the first half of the 19th century until the present day, is a special example of a place where the search for and shaping of an ever-new identity is closely linked to ongoing revitalisation processes that affect the social and economic development of degraded areas of the city. It is a specific and very dynamic symbiosis and interaction between economic, political, urban, social, cultural processes that influence the perception, image and identity of Lodz. The aim of this chapter is to identify the elements of identity of the city of Lodz and their role in development processes, including urban regeneration processes.
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This chapter descends from the concept of urban auscultation described by Shannon Mattern. She draws attention to the diagnostic value of the city’s soundscape in investigating the changes taking place in the urban tissue – both physical, socio-cultural, economic and symbolic. The case study of the soundscape of Stare Polesie district is a result of a research carried out using the participatory observation method within art based research and autoethnographic orientation. During three artistic residencies in the Stare Polesie district, which represents spatial changes taking place in recent decades in Lodz, the artists tried to construct narratives and sound impressions of the identity of this territory. The collected data show the multifaceted nature of the spatial transformations of the district, provide knowledge on how the space is used, and tell the narratives by residents and city activists. Demolition of tenement houses, setting up green areas, changes in the economic activity of residents, changes in traffic organization, but also the relative stability of the architecture of the quarters – these factors shape the audiosphere of the district. Research on the soundscape of cities allows for dynamic tracking of changes in space and early signaling of potential threats to the needs of the local community. The presented results show the possible benefits of treating the audiosphere as an important component in diagnosing the condition and planning urban space.
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Political discourse in Russia is strongly influenced by the country’s authoritarian political system. It is often polarized and divisive, with little room for compromise or cooperation between opposing views. The government’s tight control over the media and political opposition has limited the diversity of voices heard, contributing to a lack of constructive dialogue and a failure to address key policy issues.
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The military conflict between Russia and Ukraine has caused concern around the world. Central Europe, including the Visegrad Four countries, many of which are Ukraine´s neighbors and may feel even more threatened, is undoubtedly the most affected region. Although they are members of NATO, which offers them some protection, the threat from Russia is more immediate than ever. This is partly because of President Putin´s claims about these states, the new waves of migrants, and the threat to Europe´s energy security. Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary were the countries where thousands of Ukrainian war refugees arrived. To this day, Slovakia and Hungary have been unable to resolve their energy dependence on Russia.
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War and language are inextricably linked to human existence. Language serves as a means of communication, while war is one of the oldest ways of resolving conflicts. Initially, these two elements were separate, but their relationship has become increasingly complex over time. In many cases, language is used as a propaganda tool to shape public opinion (Jowett, O’Donnell 2018) and promote war. Since time immemorial, people have used language to communicate, fostering the development of communities and cultures. War has also been a part of human history, as people have had to defend themselves against enemies and protect their territory and resources.
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On February 8, 2022, Emmanuel Macron flew from Moscow to Kiev to inform the Ukrainian president about the outcome of his conversation with Vladimir Putin. The French president announced that after a long and tense exchange of views, the Russian president promised that Russia would abide by the agreements and not cause escalation. Two weeks later, Russian tanks invaded Ukraine, triggering the most significant conflict in Europe since World War II.
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Spanish-Ukrainian relations date back to the times of the Soviet Union. After the Chernobyl explosion, Spanish families began to take in Ukrainian children for summer holidays, and in 1992 diplomatic relations began to develop when Ukraine’s independence was declared. In terms of trade, Spain is the largest importer of Ukrainian grain in the EU and several Spanish companies are based there, including Acciona, which invests in renewable energy. On the issue of the annexation of Crimea and the occupation of part of the territory of Donetsk and Luhansk, Spain has supported Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial unity.
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Language and politics are intertwined (Niehr 2014). If politicians want to engage citizens, they must master the art of communication. This was true in antiquity, and it is still true today. This is true in democratic settings, but language is also important for politicians in non-democratic regimes (Štefančík 2018). The art of communication is particularly important in peacetime, but it is equally important in wartime. It is important for the aggressor but similarly crucial for the country’s politicians, who have to defend themselves against the aggressor. It is equally important for the politicians in the states who are helping the invaded state. One of the states that is helping Ukraine significantly in its fight against the Russian aggressor is the United Kingdom.
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