Az XYZ ábécéje. A nemzedékek meghatározása

Author(s): Mark McCrindle,Emily Wolfinger / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 11/2010

Based on a more than a decade of research, this reference is designed for marketers, managers, educators, and parents who need a useful, fun, not-too-technical introduction to generational research. The breezy vocabulary of this kind of study is familiar to most people—Are Gen X-ers still slackers? Will Gen Y-ers ever move out of the house? Why are Zeds so spoiled?—but this guide goes deeper with explanations of how a generation is defined and the statistical tools that allow social scientists to track the behavior of its members over time. The discussion also provides examples of generational conflicts in school, home, and the workplace—and reveals how these clashes can be understood and resolved.

Konstruktsioonipõhine keelemudel ja sõnaraamatumudel

Author(s): Heete Sahkai / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 4/2008

Construction-based theories of language are the result of the acknowledgement that idiosyncratic and idiomatic phenomena constitute an important part of linguistic knowledge and are often subject to partial regularities. Such phenomena pose problems for many alternative linguistic theories based on lexical projection and compositional semantics, as well as for certain important assumptions of lexicography. One of these is the assumption that distributional patterns divide words into a relatively small set of parts of speech so that the grammatical behaviour of words can be indexed in a dictionary with part of speech tags. Another assumption is that words are relatively automonous entities and thus that their meaning and behaviour in context is determined by their inherent semantic and combinatorial properties. The paper explores three types of phenomena that pose problems for current lexicographic practices based on these assumptions. The fi rst of these is the exceptional syntactic behaviour of words or word forms that have become entrenched in an idiosyncratic pattern which cannot be described in terms of parts of speech, the second is construction-specifi c meaning, and the third is idiosyncratic behaviour and/or construction-specifi c meaning acquired by words or word forms in a productive construction. It is proposed that the occurrence of the head word or some of its forms in a construction in which it displays idiosyncratic behaviour and/or constructionspecifi c meaning should be described in a separate structural unit in the dictionary article, similarly to its occurrence in a phraseological unit. It is argued that omitting information about constructions or confl ating it with information about the inherent semantic and grammatical properties of the head word would be misleading, especially in learners’ dictionaries. The possibility to describe constructions in a dictionary is however limited, as is illustrated by the third phenomenon examined in the paper: productive constructions that contain no fi xed lexical material can only be represented in an eventual “constructicon” complementing the lexicon and the traditional grammar.

Ladina õigusterminite vormilisest ja sisulisest korrektsusest

Author(s): Merike Ristikivi / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 4/2008

The article discusses the orthography of Latin legal terms and its peculiarities, and Latin morphology and its relationship with Estonian sentence. Law is a fi eld where linguistic means of expression are of utmost importance. This discipline operates directly through language; a word or expression acquires juridical power in it. The material analysed comprises the terms collected from the law review Juridica issued from 1993 to 2007. The time period looked at in the given research has been a decisive era in the development of Estonian law: it is characterised by turning back to the Western legal environment which largely depends on the Latin language. The legal reform in Estonia has been accompanied by changes in the usage of terms by Estonian lawyers. The integration of Estonian legal language into European legal culture is refl ected by a relatively high increase in the usage of terms in Latin. At the same time, there occur several problems when Latin terms are employed. In Latin, a synthetic language, grammatical relationships are represented by applying suffi xes and infl ectional endings. As a result, the recognition and understanding of a Latin term may be affected by distinguishing the singular and the plural form, as well as using of a term in different case forms or with various prepositions. Diffi culties in understanding can also be caused by the use of a less known Latin expression or the improper use of an expression in a sentence. Mistakes frequently appear in the spelling of Latin terms, as well as in the agreement between case forms and gender forms and in translation of Latin terms. The most common problem when using Latin terms, however, is adapting the foreign words to the context and incorporating them into the Estonian sentences. Ordinarily mistakes occur in the usage of two forms – the basic form in the nominative case and the adverbial in the ablative – in the proper context.

Ühest katsest emotsiooniverbidega

Author(s): Anni Silk / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 4/2008

Beim Zusammenstellen der estnischen und deutschen Emotionsverblisten entstand immer wieder die Frage, was die Emotionswörter (in diesem Fall Emotionsverben) eigentlich sind. Verschiedene Wortlisten in der Literatur scheinen nach völlig verschiedenen Kriterien zusammengestellt zu sein. Einige Autoren (z. B. Mari Siiroinen) gehen anscheinend von einer recht begrenzten Emotionswortbestimmung aus, nach der Emotionsverben fast ausschließlich mit bestimmten Emotionen in Zusammenhang stehen, nach anderen (z. B. Jüri Allik, Andrew Ortony, Gerald L. Core und Mark A. Foss) umfassen diese auch einige weitere kognitive Wörter bzw. Wörter, die eher Charaktereigenschaften bezeichnen. Um festzustellen, welche Verben estnische und deutsche Muttersprachler als Emotionsverben empfi nden, wurden 76 deutsche und 47 estnische Versuchspersonen gebeten, über die Zugehörigkeit der vorgegebenen (und vorher als sog. Grenzfälle bezeichnenden) Verben zum Wortfeld der Emotionsverben zu entscheiden. Die Ergebnisse des Experiments zeigen, dass sowohl Deutsche als auch Esten im Allgemeinen eher konkrete Tätigkeitsverben (wie z. B. laitma ‘tadeln’, schmeicheln) als Verben mit übertragener Bedeutung (wie z. B. berücken, entzaubern) zu Emotionswörtern zählen und Emotionsverben als ein ziemlich weites Wortfeld betrachten, zu dem auch mehrere (bewertende) Sprechaktverben (z. B. demütigen, entwürdigen, herabwürdigen). Besonders schwankend schienen die Entscheidungen bei Verben mit der kognitiven Komponente zu sein – ein Teil von ihnen wurde für Emotionsverben gehalten, ein anderer dagegen nicht. Es sollte noch bemerkt werden, dass die Unterschiede zwischen Individuen und innerhalb einer Sprache wesentlich größer waren als die zwischen Deutsch und Estnisch. Das beweist nochmals, dass Emotionswörter ein Gebiet mit sehr subjektiven Grenzen und Kriterien darstellt.

Kuidas me mõistame mõisteid?

Author(s): Ene Vainik,Toomas Kirt / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 4/2008

Scholars differ over the meaning of concept. Having fi rst belonged to the fi eld of logic and philosophy, concepts are now of interest also for (neuro)linguists, psychologists, cognitive scientists and and specialists in informatics. The aim of the article is to provide an overview of different theoretical approaches to concept and to demonstrate the relations of those approaches to certain tendencies in linguistic semantics.

Eesti silbisüsteemi struktuurist

Author(s): Leo Võhandu,Kairit Sirts,Eiki Aab / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 4/2008

Using the Corpus of Estonian Literary Language and specifi cally the selection of fi ction texts from years 1988–1998 we have studied the frequency table of Estonian syllables (1000 most frequent syllables). As an experimental study we have used Hamilton Path (HP) and Social Network Clusters to study the inner structure of syllable system. For HP we have created and represented a program in J-6.01 which connects all syllables into a sequential path with the maximal connections sum and without a syllable repetition. As another method we have created SNC networks for 100 and 1000 most frequent syllables. In this short article we have presented graphically only the 100 syllable network without explaining exactly either the mathematical method or networks interpretation.

Unirea Principatelor Române şi concertul european

Author(s): Gh. Cliveţi / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

The author aims at assessing the international implications of the Romanian Principalities Union in a particular perspective. Generally, these implications were considered in relation to the positions taken by the major powers who had assumed the collective guarantee on the Romanian Principalities in accordance with the Treaty of March 30, 1856. The intention was to show that, apart from the guarantee commitment, the powers manifested as favourable to the idea of union (France, Prussia, Sardinia, Russia), or simply hostile to this idea (Austria and Great Britain, the latter strongly supporting the Sublime Porte). The novelty of this study is given by the way in which the authors approaches the positions taken by the major powers. This perspective aimed at showing how the European Concert deliberated at that time on the international issues. The “chance” of the Romanians was that, at the time of the Union, the France of Napoleon III, with his Eastern policy directed towards “the construction of the new Europe” was chairing the European Concert.

Iaşii la 1866: între acceptarea schimbării de regim şi tentaţia separatismului

Author(s): Liviu Brătescu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

Concerned with overcoming the economic and social crisis in Romania in early 1866, the Lascar Catargiu Government would also face a very serious political problem: the separatist movement in Moldavia. Aware of the Moldavian population’s state of mind, the participants in the conspiracy against Prince Cuza had been concerned, from the beginning of their association, to grant the movement they were preparing a national rather than a regional character. The fact that their precautions were justified will be proven during the weeks before the plebiscite for the election of Charles of Hohenzollern as head of the Romanian state. Even if there were considerable efforts to convince, especially the Moldavians, that not the Union, but the mismanagement of the country had affected the entire territory, and not just “the territory beyond Milcov”, the political leaders in Moldavia were already discussing, in the various meetings held, the possibility of returning to the situation before the year 1859. Paying attention to the unrest manifest in several towns, the authorities in Bucharest resorted to the appointment of central administration officials in the “rebelled” localities, a decision that would cause even more unrest. Without acting in a very coherent way, the supporters of the separatist movement aroused some interest even beyond the borders of the country, and found strong support - not at all lacking ulterior motive - with the Tsarist government. Despite this reality, from the perspective of outside intervention, one possible explanation for the movement that took place in Iaşi, on April 3, 1866 is, in our opinion, an exaggeration. The following article represents an attempt to prove this statement, as well as a development of some of the considerations made above.

Diplomaţia suedeză şi Unirea Principatelor Române

Author(s): Veniamin Ciobanu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

The author has researched the archives and tracked down a series of Swedish diplomatic reports written by the Swedish ambassador in Constantinople, which provide new information about the internal and external circumstances in which took place the double election of Alexandu Ioan Cuza as ruling prince of Moldavia and Wallachia. The reports concern the domestic policy atmosphere, the diplomatic actions of the protecting powers, the ideas of Cuza’s political program, including the need to be replaced on the United Principalities throne by a foreign prince when all the interior and exterior conditions are fulfilled, and also a very interesting characterization of Cuza. The information on the domestic atmosphere had been provided to the Ambassador by the Swedish officials in Moldavia and Wallachia who had had the opportunity to personally attend the events narrated. In conclusion, the author expresses his hope that the new information offers the possibility to expand the documentary database for research on the Romanian Principalities Union.

New considerations on the administration, law, and relations with the ruler in medieval Moldavian towns

Author(s): Laurenţiu Rădvan / Language(s): English Issue: 46/2009

The present study focuses on new standpoints regarding the way medieval towns in Moldavia were organized, and on their rights, duties and relations with the ruler. A close analysis of the sources reveals that the distance between the towns of Moldavia and those in Transylvania and in the Galician Rus’ was not as vast as it was previously suggested. The connections between these urban centers stem from the fact that the towns beyond the mountains or in the north were actually models for those east of the Carpathians, similar to the towns in Transylvania which acted as models for Wallachian towns. However, local features also generated many differences. In the 14th - 15th centuries, there was a balance in the relations between the towns and the rulers, with the latter group not encroaching on their rights. We have no evidence to show that the central authority interfered in towns prior to 1500. This tends to change from the 16th century on, and especially over the next two centuries, as Eastern elements find their way into towns. The number of Greeks and Armenians from south of the Danube increases, while Saxons and Hungarians dwindle and begin to blend in, after converting to Lutheranism or after mixed marriages. Political changes in the area also take their toll. By controlling the Danube and the Black Sea, the Ottoman Empire gradually brought the Principalities under its political and economic scope. Towns in the 1600s are largely different from those in the 1400.

Rusia şi rectificarea graniţelor României în 1878. Reacţii şi atitudini politice, controverse istoriografice

Author(s): Dumitru Vitcu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

The resumption of the oriental crisis and the political, diplomatic and military events related to it between 1875-1878 influenced – like the previous edition of the same substantive issue – the historical destiny of the Romanian society, while correcting not only the legal status of its eve, but also the configuration of the state borders towards the same south-eastern direction.

Consideraţii privitoare la evoluţia mişcărilor naţionale din monarhia de Habsburg (secolele XVIII-XX)

Author(s): Mihai-Ştefan Ceauşu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

Broadly speaking, national movements from the Habsburg Monarchy, as part of the modernization process, are enrolled in an already defined European model and are based on certain common elements that take into account every nation’s efforts to obviate the basic shortfalls of one’s own national existence. Mainly, these comprised the lack of an autonomous policy, the inexistence or the feeble development of a written culture in one’s own language, as well as the existence of an incomplete social structure. These represent a historic process that unfolds on the long span of the historical time. It commences with the conscience crystallization regarding one’s own national identity, in the second half of the 18th century and proceeds along the next century with the political movements’ emergence that were based on the nationality idea. Eventually, notwithstanding the regional peculiarities and methods, it prompts the downfall of Austria-Hungary at the end of the 20th century second decade and the emergence of new national states on the map of Europe. The synthetic review endeavored particularly for the Czechs, Croats, Poles, Romanians, Serbs, and Hungarians departs from political-judicial statute differences, that resulted from the specific manner in which every province apart entered into the composition of the Habsburg Empire, as well as from the geopolitical situations occupied by certain nations from the empire, in order to follow by what means all these left their mark on the political programs of each national movement apart. Certain common traits are emphasized from the multitude of specific peculiar situations, together with the differences that, in time, led to the existence of certain profound disagreements between the national movements of the Habsburg Monarchy’s nations, whose final result was its collapse at the end of the First World War.

„Şi altul să nu se amestece!” Despre semnificaţia unei formule în diplomatica medievală

Author(s): Arcadie M. Bodale / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

The expressions met in diplomatic documents reveal social realities unknown until then for the Romanian medieval society. One of these phrases is “and do not interfere!”, preserved in several versions, and used especially by the Duke in the Chancellery documents. However, it can also be seen in the testimony of senior officials and in acts composed by the senior clergy or the aristocracy. In the acts of the Chancellery, the expression certifies precisely that ownership over a domain has been challenged by the state dignitaries or by one or more families, each party considering it had the right to claim land on the basis of an act of donation, exchange or purchase. Thus, it testifies to the existence of a conflict between the owners at the time of the issuance of those documents; or, it shows, after their creation, that other possession claims over a piece of land could be raised by those who experienced the injustices contained in such acts. Consequently, this prohibition was intended to stop, by threats and / or by the curse contained in medieval documents, possible disputes caused by disinherited people, by those who lost a lawsuit over land or any other aspirant seeking to acquire land that did not belong to them. In addition, for sales, wills, dowry papers or documents of charity, this formula would prevent the interference of parents dissatisfied with the testamentary disposition of a master, blocking any chance of breaking the will before the trial by the Duke.

Unirea Principatelor în interpretarea unui controversat universitar ieşean: Giorge Pascu

Author(s): Leonidas Rados / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

Through the union with Wallachia, in 1859, the city of Iasi gave up its condition of capital city and accepted, in exchange for some compensations of a cultural nature, the resulting sacrifices. The most significant compensation was the foundation of the University, and the city would become a sort of cultural capital of the new state, idea for which the Moldavian leaders, starting with Mihail Kogalniceanu and Titu Maiorescu, fought. At a local level there is the awareness of the major and, to a great extent, unilateral sacrifice made by the population in Moldavia through their union with Wallachia, and compensations meant to attenuate the symbolic and economic losses are expected from the new center. At that time, what the inter-war intellectuals called “the marginalization of Moldavia and Iasi” and, implicitly, of the cultural and educational institutions, especially of the University of Iasi, generated a complex that marked the entire existence after 1859, the complex of “the province”. It manifests in a city that was accustomed to being

Clubul, formă de sociabilitate în epoca modernă

Author(s): Ioana Cioflâncă / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

The club appeared in the urban space as a form of modern sociability. Institution of British origin it was propagated by imitation through the entire Europe, starting with the beginning of 19th century. In the modern club, aristocracy was replaced with plebeian elites, especially from the business world and the liberal professions. In Iasi, the most representative club was Jockey Club, but beside this there were other clubs like the Military Club, Concordia or the Tennis Club.

Politica „reformatoare” a Rusiei şi interesele marii boierimi pământene din Moldova (1812-1818)

Author(s): Cristian Ploscaru / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

In the last decade of historical existance of the fanariot regime in Romanian Principalities, Russia’s pressure on internal factors of power (the prince and the boyar’s), manifested through the promotion of a draft legal and administrative reform, experienced in the years of occupation (1807-1812) and which had transformed into a “regulamentar constitution” for Moldova and Wallachia. This project reflects the most well what is understood at Petersburg by “civilization” and “stable order of things”, as an alternative to the revolutionary French model for the territories to the western borders of the Russian Empire. It may be said that, trying to impose their domination under the cloak of protection of the Orthodox Christians under Turkish domination, Russia did not have sufficient resources to colonize cultural provinces recently acquired in Europe (Finland, Poland, Baltic countries and Bessarabia) or which wanted to annex (Moldova and Wallachia). Since the reign Ecaterina II, Russia tried to compensate this cultural deficiency, colonizing legal and administrative the new territories, imposing its own legislative and institutional models. However, studying how they were implemented in Moldova the Russian reforming suggestions it detaches the conclusion that native aristocracy of Moldova still have sufficient means to harness their own powers the Russian plans. But, as Russian officials have begun to support the oligarchical velleitys of the boyar’s families they inserted in their memoirs the political ideas that deserve more, consciously or not, the purposes of domination of Russia

Aspecte ale primului mandat al lui Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen la conducerea legaţiei României din Berlin (februarie 1928-martie 1930)

Author(s): Adrian Vițalaru / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

legacy. This was happening after a mandate of approximately five years as a leader of the Romanian legacy in Bern, during which he was named to permanently represent the Romanian government at the Nations’ Society. He was named in Berlin as a result of some changes that took place in the Romanian diplomatic corps and also because the relationship between our country and Germany was of increased stake. This political context was marked by the acceptance of Germany as a member of the Nations’ League and also by Romanian’s need to solve its economical litigations that will have allow it to receive and extern loan. For Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen this appointment represented a challenge as well as a symbolic act of trust from the government leader Vintilă Brătianu. During his first two years in Berlin Petrescu-Comnen was a very active figure in the German diplomatic media succeeding to solve out some litigations between the two countries. In spite of this, he was moved to Vatican in mars 1930 and this was happening because of the political changes that were taking place in Bucharest, which were added to Petrescu-Comnen’s sympathy for the National Liberal party which was part of the opposition starting November 1928 and his pretty tensioned relationship with Iuliu Maniu, who was the leader of the time of the National Peasant Party. Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen finished his first mandate in Berlin with regrets. He was not willing to give up to the leadership of the German’s legacy for the one in Vatican, considering himself moved on second line of the diplomatic world and this after two years during which he was having great achievements regarding economical relationships between Romania and Germany and the successful solutions for some economical litigations the two countries had. Because of his accomplishments, the relationships he built up and the profound understanding of the German reality after two years spent in Vatican, he was brought back as a leader of the Romanian legacy in Berlin.

ABREVIERI

Author(s): Author Not Specified / Language(s): Miscellaneous languages Issue: 46/2009

Tezaurul de la Ungureni. Prolegomene la circulaţia şilingului în Moldova

Author(s): Viorel M. Butnariu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

The republication of the treasure found at Ungureni (county of Botoşani) opens up the path for further discussions on the penetration, circulation and accumulation of Escalin in XVIIth century Moldavia, as a common and stable currency, meeting the needs for small cash, in the context of the loss of the old Hungarian and Ottoman currencies of local circulation. After the restoration and the establishment of technical data, the 363 monetary emissions were grouped into original (187), counterfeit (171) with stamp particularities and completely worn out (5).

Costache Negri şi Unirea Principatelor Române

Author(s): Dumitru Ivănescu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 46/2009

Romanian Academy Library concerning the diplomatic mission of C. Negri at Constantinopol. The paper underlines his contribution at the international recognition of the union of Romanian Principalities which took place on 5th and 24th of January 1859 and also at the complete fulfilment of the union in 1861.