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Między szczerą ciekawością Anglika a wczesnonowożytną teorią ekfrazy
Peter Mundy (1596 – ca. 1667), one of the most representative English travellers of his period, visited Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń (Thorn) in 1640 and 1642 and described these cities in his Relations. The article includes deliberations concerning Mundy’s descriptions of the two most important cities in Royal Prussia in the context of early modern theory of ekphrasis and the eulogy of the city, represented especially by manuals of preliminary exercises in rhetoric (progymnasmata) and chapters from De inventione et amplificatione oratoria by Gerard Bucoldianus included in Reinhard Lorich’s Scholia attached to his edition of Aphthonius’ Progymnasmata, one of the most popular rhetoric books in the second half of 16th and in 17th centuries. The analysis of the structure and contents of Mundy’s “relations” leads to the conclusion that the English traveller was aware of the early modern theory of description and eulogy of cities but, at the same time, his curiosity made him free to leave the theoretical rules aside and focus himself on interesting technical constructions (“The great Organs in the Pfarrekerke” in Gdańsk or the Toruń bridge) or customs of burghers (“execution of Justice” and “Recreations” in Gdańsk and “A greatt faire” in Toruń).
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The aim of this article is to analyse the extent to which oriental lexis is present in textbooks for maktab class. The attempt was made to classify the oriental lexes found in categories: Arabism, words of Turkish origin, words of Persian origin: standard (irreplaceable lexis), sub-standard (replaceable); sacral (religious); non-sacral (non-religious); onomastics (origin of proper names; esp. personal names), stylogenous (elements of emphasised expression) and historisms (lexis developed from active language). The research was conducted on bases of three textbooks designed for different levels of maktab class (I, II, III), used in academic year 2020/21. The aim was to find out the extent to which presence of oriental lexis in textbooks, used as a source for studying and promoting local culture, contribute in achieving the aims of maktab class in this regard. Keeping in mind that the subject of this analysis was textbooks with religious content, it was expected to find more Arabisms, equal number of standard and sub-standard lexis, equal number of sacral and non-sacral lexis and sufficient number of lexis from other categories. Analysis was carried out by highlighting all the lexis of oriental origin and then classifying them as per mentioned categories. The results show that Arabism is the most present lexis (independent words), next most used are lexis of Turkish origin and least of all are those of Persian lexis. Category of standard was more often used than sub-standard and sacral lexis dominated over non-sacral. However, the percentage of standard, non-sacral lexis (approximately 20%) and the percentage of stylistic elements (around 4%) indicates that this is a good foundation for achieving specific goals of maktab class regarding learning about and promoting of local cultural values. The analysis showed the presence of onomastics, stylistic and historic elements in these textbooks as well. We also noted that lexis of Turkish origin of standard, nonsacral nature is rather scarce. The results of this research may have further use in future comparative researches in the field and in researches in the field of competency of mu’allims in achieving the specific goals of maktab class.
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This article discusses various aspect of using old Polish language etiquette (linguistic politeness) in the 18th-century letters written by Jędrzej Kitowicz (1728–1804), a well known author of Custom and Culture in Poland Under the Last Saxon King (translated by Oscar E. Swan, 2016, 2018). The writer is also known as the author of many letters to people connected with him by various social relations. The subject matter of this article encompasses ways of organizing the etiquette formulas used in the construction of the final part of the letters, where the genre norms allow for some creative individuality. The analysis is focused on relation between ways of using language and social determinants of the sender’s and recipient’s status. The paper discusses factors (sociolinguistic, pragmatic, genre) determining the selection of appropriate language formulas. It also presents the structure of etiquette formulas used in the letters to Kitowicz’s sister and to his powerful protector Michał Lipski, for whom he worked as a secretary and newsman. The differentiation of language etiquette. The differentiation of language etiquette formulas in the letter subscription, the care for their stylistic shape, is recognized in this article as a manifestation of linguistic politeness, which serves to maintain specific relationship between the sender and the recipient of the letters.
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Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864) moved to St Petersburg in 1835. Impermanence and competition of variants were typical for his orthography. During the four initial years in that city, Daukantas managed to shape at least two consecutive distinct Lithuanian orthographies of his own: (1) of the Beginning Years in St Petersburg (1835–1836) and (2) of his First Printed Books (ca. the 2nd half of 1836 to 1838). This study analyzes Daukantas’s third period of significant orthographic transformations during his residency in St Petersburg— a prolonged four-year phase of orthographic modifications that can be termed the Orthographic Switch of Proverbs (ca. 1838–1841), since the change was best reflected in the draft lists of proverbs. The major orthographic data was collected from Daukantas’s manuscript Margumynai (Miscellanea, p. 156–166, LLTIBR: f. 1 – SD 27) and printed book Abecieła Lîjtuwiû- Kalnienû ir Żiamajtiû Kałbos (The Primer of the Lithuanian Language—of Highlanders and of Lowlanders, St Petersburg, 1842).
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The article analyzes materials from the Archive of V. Rozov. They contain knowledge important for modern historical linguistics and dialectology. The material is based on a deep and systematic study of charters from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, which Rozov made in publications of 1917 and 1928. Basically, the Archive comprises manuscripts written in the Kyiv period, as well as from 1925 to 1940, when V. Rozov taught at the universities of Skopje and Zagreb. New archival materials, which have not yet been the subject of a separate historical and linguistic study, reveal the expansion of the scientific concept of V. Rozov – from studying the phonetics of the Volyn dialect and the charters of Švitrigaila to a generalized presentation of the classification of business documents of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and dialectal differentiation of the language.
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The article contains a brief review of spheres of folkloristic activities by professor Kazys Grigas. His most outstanding achievements, however, belong to the field of paremiology: thanks to his own ceaseless attempts and under his guidance, over 200 000 proverbs and proverbial phrases were systematized, and publication of the fundamental edition of “Lithuanian Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases” launched (vol. 1, 2000). K. Grigas was the author of significant works in comparative paremiology, including books like “Lithuanian Proverbs” (1976) and “Parallels of Proverbs” (1987), and also numerous studies and problem articles. He published and examined other small forms of folklore as well, including riddles, onomatopoeias, tong-twisters, jokes, etc. K. Grigas also significantly contributed to the Lithuanian folklore historiography, conducting research into the 19th century, especially the works by S. Daukantas. K. Grigas was an active folklore collector, a devoted teacher of the young folklorists and researchers, editor of various folklore publications, etc. His merits in Lithuanian folklore research and popularization are truly magnificent.
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This paper represents the stream of structuralist research and has been dedicated to discussing a selected portion of the sports vocabulary of the interwar period. On the basis of the „Jeździec i hodowca” (“Rider and breeder”) magazine, foreign words present in the horse-racing vocabulary have been analysed. The research concentrates on describing the chronology and genetics of the borrowings, their registration in selected lexicographic sources, and the thematic circles they represent. The conclusion of this paper indicates that a large portion of the vocabulary borrowed from horse races was not stabilized and was subject to adaptation to the Polish language system in the selected period.
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The article discusses linguistic and non-verbal features of 19th-century savoir-ivre. Babie lato [Indian Summer] by Stefania Ulanowska (1839–?), the source text under scrutiny, is a 21-page short story, which has most probably never come out in print. There are four conversation situations in the text: 1) a symmetrical setup (the interlocutors have equal social status and comparable pragmatic rank), 2) a symmetrical setup with asymmetrical features, related to the conversation between a man and a woman, 3) a less distanced asymmetrical setup, where the participants of the conversation are the mother and children, 4) a full asymmetric setup, in which the mistress of the house addresses the maid. The short story moreover features non-verbal etiquette features, such as a man tipping over his hat when he sees a woman and a man kissing a woman’s hand. The characteristics of etiquette observed in Babie lato are a supplement to the deliberations on savoir-vivre in the 19th century and confirm the changes that took place at that time in terms of courtesy in comparison with the old Polish period. They are also a testimony to the old culture of the nobility, transferred to bourgeoisie houses.
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The paper raises the issues of how the long tense vowel o, which is considered as one of the markers of standard language, has been realized in TV and radio news broadcasts over the last five decades and what linguistic and non-linguistic factors affect changes in its usage. The empirical data of this study consist of TV and radio news broadcasts since 1960. All the news broadcasts come from a representative, retrospective corpus of more than 60 hours of Lithuanian broadcast media divided into three periods of broadcast media development: the Soviet period (from 1960 to 1987), a transitional one (from 1988 to 1992), and the contemporary period (from 1993 to 2011). The pronunciation of a total of 39 news broadcasts and their fragments and of a total of 134 anchors, announcers, news readers, and reporters was analyzed. The study revealed that although our language standardization ideology has not changed since the seventh decade of the last century, even in the “ideal” conditions of the Soviet era, i.e., when the content and the speech of news broadcasts were strictly supervised and controlled and all the texts were rehearsed and read, the usage of the long tense vowel o had never met the ideal of the standard language pronunciation.
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Tungusic lexical lists within “Comparative dictionaries of all languages and dialects” by P. S. Pallas (1773 year of recording, 1787—1789 years of edition) represent the earliest and most representative lexical material for the dialectology of the Evenki and Even languages. The lists contain vocabulary in seven Evenki and two Even dialects. The subject of considerable interest is also a manuscript of A. J. Sjögren (redrafted in 1842) that contains similar materials in six Evenki and two Even dialects and in Manchu. This article attempts to compare the vocabulary presented in the dictionaries of P. S. Pallas and A. J. Sjögren, to establish the time and place of its recording, as well as to clarify the distribution of the Evenki dialects in the second half of the 18th century. The study reveals that the manuscript of A. J. Sjögren most likely represents the revised and expanded vocabulary materials of P. S. Pallas excepting the list in the Evenki dialect of the Chapogir clan. The present study focuses primarily on the reflection of the Proto-Evenki *s as one of the differential phonetic features of the Evenki dialects. The data reflected in the dictionaries collected from the Evenki of Mangazeya, Yeniseysk and the Chapogirs allow to highlight the ʃ isogloss for the basin of the Yenisei River. The dialects spoken by the North Baikal Evenki of the Upper Angara River and the Transbaikal Evenki of Nerchinsk show the same hushing character. The vocabulary recorded from the Barguzin Evenki testifies the hissing character of the dialect in anlaut and mixed character (s and ʃ) in inlaut. In the dialect of the Nerchinsk Evenki in anlaut and inlaut there may be reflected s as well as ʃ. The dictionary of the Evenki dialect recorded on the territory of modern Yakutia demonstrates the ʃ reflection and isolated cases of s reflection in anlaut and the distribution of ʃ and h in inlaut.
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August Engelbrecht Ahlqvist (1826―1889) was a key figure in the Finnish, Finno-Ugric and Ural-Altaic linguistics of the second half of the 19th century who remained in the shadow of other well-known researchers for a long time. A. Ahlqvist formed as a scholar, political figure and writer under the influence of the Finnish national awakening movement. J. V. Snellman, the founder of the Finnish philosophy school, E. Lönnroth, the compiler of the epic poem “Kalevala”, and the romantic poet J. L. Runeberg were among his mentors. A. Ahlqvist spent his first expeditions in 1845―1855 taking down runic poems, lyrical songs, collecting speech samples, and making ethnographic observations among the Finns, Karelians, Vod's, Estonians and Veps. For the next three years he studied the languages and lifestyles of the Chuvash, Mordvins, Mari, Mansi, and Khants in the Middle Volga region and Western Siberia. His advanced ideas and field work experience allowed him to become a Professor of the Finnish language and literature at the Imperial Alexander University in Helsingfors in 1863. His book on “cultural words” in the Western Finnish languages brought linguistics and ethnography closer together. A. Ahlqvist was elected a corresponding member of the Imperial Saint-Petersburg Academy of Sciences in recognition of his achievements in the study of the Finno-Ugric peoples. Continuing his field research in 1877 and 1880, he visited the Khants and Mansi again, publishing his ethnographic notes in a separate volume. A. Ahlqvist founded the Finno-Ugric Society together with like-minded O. Donner and J. R. Aspelin in 1883, and the following year he was elected the Rector of the University in Helsingfors. A. Ahlqvist linked the past and future of the Finno-Ugric studies; he became one of the Finnish literary language creators. No less significant are A. Ahlqvist’s ethnographic observations, which contributed to establishing Finno-Ugric ethnography as an academic discipline.
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The article deals with the verbal morphology in the monument of Mari writing “The Beginnings of Christian doctrine...” (published in Kazan in 1841). Among the earliest publications in the Mari language, this is one of the most voluminous texts, including Concise Sacred History and Catechism. The dialectal basis of the considered text is a Meadow dialect, at the same time the verbal morphology (mainly in the plural forms) differs significantly from the literary norm of the contemporary Mari (Meadow-Eastern) language. As a result of comparison with dialectological data, the correspondence of the verbal morphology in the monument to the conjugation in the western subdialects (Volga, Yoshkar-Ola) of the Meadow dialect is revealed. (These dialects turned out to be peripheral during the formation of the literary Meadow-Eastern Mari language in the 20th century. The verbal morphology of the literary language is based on the Morki-Sernur subdialect of the Meadow dialect and the Eastern dialect of the Mari language.) At the same time, the specific verb forms of Western subdialects of the Meadow dialect revealed in the monument and described in the article largely correlate with the conjugation in Western Mari dialects (Hill and North-Western), including the literary norm of the Hill Mari language. In general, the analysis of the verbal forms (with preliminary consideration of phonetic and vocabulary data) allows us to define the “The Beginnings of Christian Doctrine…” (1839 / 1841) as a most important early written monument of the Volga subdialect of the Meadow dialect and a valuable source on the historical dialectology of the Mari language.
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This article describes the graphic features of the first syllable vowels in Pustozersk and Obdorsk dictionaries from A. M. Sjögren’s archive. The graphic analysis is carried out against the background of the Proto-Samoyed reconstructions by J. Janhunen, Nenets current literary norm, “Nenets-Russian Dictionary” by N. M. Tereschenko, “A Morphological Dictionary of Tundra Nenets Language” by T. Salminen, and “Dialectal Dictionary of the Nenets Language” by S. I. Burkova et al. The dialectal features of the dictionaries are compared to the modern ones. The area of the Pustozersk region is referred to as the territory where the central (Bolshezemelskiy) dialect is spoken. In one word the graphic representation of the 18th century Pustozersk dictionary coincides with the form of the modern Eastern dialect word. At the same time, in another word, the Western variant is attested. The territory where the Obdorsk dictionary was recorded is the territory where the speakers of the Eastern dialects of the Nenets language reside. In the Obdorsk dictionary, a variant that coincides with the Eastern variant is recognized. Some outstanding consonant features of the first syllable are also taken into consideration. For example, in the Pustozersk dictionary, the initial /ŋ/ is not represented graphically, as in Proto-Samoyedic reconstructions. The Obdorsk dictionary contains three graphic variants of the modern initial /ŋ/. The results are presented in comparison tables. The word examples are presented accordingly. In many ways, the reflexes presented in the Pustozersk dictionary correspond with modern ones. The reconstructed diphthongoids are graphically represented by the diphthongs in the Pustozersk dictionary, which is not the case for modern dictionaries. In comparison with modern dictionaries, reflexes in the Obdorsk dictionary are more diverse. The diphthongs are also used in the place of reconstructed diphthongoids.
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This paper introduces the linguistic evidence extracted from the first translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Chuvash, which was published in Kazan in 1820. On the basis of a detailed analysis of dialect-specific features, and especially phonological and morphological innovations, the attested variety should be classified among the Kărmăš—Xĕrlĕ Čutay varieties of Viryal Chuvash. Such a conclusion is consistent with the available extra-linguistic evidence regarding the dialect affiliation of this early Bible translation. Many of the archaic features found in the first translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Chuvash were previously documented in other pre-Standard Chuvash texts from the 18th—19th centuries. One salient feature that distinguishes the Gospel translation from the other contemporary sources is that the attested variety retains the old distinction between the dative and accusative case markers (after a limited number of lexical and grammatical morphemes). Modern Chuvash makes use of the syncretic dative-accusative case suffix -(n)A, dial. -(j)A, which developed through the merger of reflexes of Proto-Turkic dative and accusative case markers, owing to phonological and paradigmatic factors. The loss of the dative-accusative distinction is usually considered an early phenomenon in the history of Chuvash because there is no trace of such a distinction in the modern Chuvash dialects. However, the fact that at least one of the Viryal Chuvash varieties featured the dative-accusative distinction as late as the 19th century provides evidence for a recent origin of the case syncretism in Chuvash. This makes the first translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Chuvash a key source on the development of the Chuvash case system prior to the emergence of the dative-accusative syncretism.
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The article deals with the Nenets borrowings in the Ob-Ugric languages: Khanty and Mansi. The main list of these borrowings was compiled by Wolfgang Steinitz in a work published more than half a century ago. In the paper I focus on phonetic features of the borrowed words. These borrowings represent predominantly the cultural vocabulary and are geographically quite limited being presented only in the northern dialects of Mansi and Khanty. Despite of this many of these words retain very archaic features of Nenets phonetics. This allows us to consider linguistic contacts between the Ob-Ugrians and the Nenets as rather old. Consideration of the corpus of the borrowings also allows to shed some light on the relative chronology of historical sound changes in the Nenets language. In the paper all Nenets loans in Mansi and Khanty are compared with their possible sources in Tundra Nenets and in Forest Nenets. This comparison shows that in Forest Nenets a potential corresponding word is often missing or looks phonetically too different and therefore can not be regarded as the source of borrowing. Thus, the donor language was definitely the Tundra Nenets, and not the Forest Nenets language. Mansi and Khanty words borrowed from Tundra Nenets may reflect the following archaic features of Nenets historical phonetics: final vowels (before reduction into °); final consonants, changed into the glottal stop in modern Nenets; intervocalic -m-, changed into - w- in modern Nenets; final glide -w, disappeared in modern Nenets. All words borrowed in Ob-Ugric languages from Nenets can be divided in two groups with respect to these parameters: some of them definitely preserve a more archaic state of Nenets phonetics, whereas others are phonetically much closer to modern Nenets words. Another feature that allows to evaluate the relative age of borrowings is the labialization of vowels in Kazym Khanty and in Mansi: in earlier borrowings Nenets vowel a has changed in Kazym Khanty and Mansi into a labial vowel, whereas in later ones it has preserved its original quality.
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As shown by J. Gulya, 18th-century Mansi dialects lacked the dialect traits which developed in the 19th—20th centuries and which have been described in detail by L. Honti. To the best of our knowledge, P. S. Pallas’s dictionaries of the Perm Mansi dialects have not been previously examined thoroughly from this point of view. This article identifies the place of the Perm Mansi dialects in the existing dialect classification. The analysis of the Perm Mansi dictionaries collected by P. S. Pallas allowed: 1) to refine the reconstruction of two PMans. phonemes: namely, the shape of the areas which preserve the reflexes a < PMans. *ā, ē̬ < PMans. *ī̮ indicates their innovative development. Thus, their PMans. forms should be reconstructed as *o and *ä instead; 2) to ascertain that two innovative developments in the Perm dialects are similar to the southern (Tavda) dialect: PMans. *o (*ā according to [Honti 1982]) > a, PMans. *u > o. However, the development of PMans. ɣ > 0, which takes place in the Perm Mansi dialects, is preserved only in the eastern and some of the western Mansi dialects, but not in the southern or northern dialects. In other cases, the Perm Mansi dialects preserve the archaic Proto-Mansi state. For instance, the Perm Mansi data make it possible to pinpoint the time of the PMans. change *u > o, which took place in the southern dialects. All in all, the analysis shows that the existing classification of the Mansi dialects describing their division, which took place about 1000 years ago, should be changed as it does not account sufficiently for the Perm dialects. According to this classification, some of the features place the Perm dialects into the southern Mansi group whereas other features identify these dialects as eastern or western. Furthermore, the article proposes that the development of PMans. *-ɣ should no longer be used as a criterion for classification since there is no PMans. reflex *-ɣ in all the northern Mansi texts of the 18th—19th centuries. Moreover, according to the field data, such a development is also present in the modern northern Middle Ob dialect. Thus, this feature does not divide genetically different dialect groups, but has an areal specificity. As for the other innovative features, the extinct Perm Mansi dialects are closest to the Tavdin dialect and should probably be assigned to this group. It becomes patent then that the currently extinct southern dialects extended almost 300 km westward to the Sverdlovsk region even as late as in the 18th century.
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The discussion note shows that the classification of toponyms proposed by N. V. Saynakova and S. V. Kovylin does not seem entirely reliable from the point of view of southern and central dialectal features. This is due to the fact that, as the analysis of monuments in the 18th and 19th centuries shows, most of the features at that period did not allow to reliably distinguish between southern and central dialects, in particular, 1) southern t́ ~ central č́, 2) southern -j ~ central -l / -l'. The discussion note provides an alternative classification of toponyms based on reliable well-known dialectal features. As a result, we can conclude that the number of examples is not sufficient for convincing toponyms’ assignment to southern or central dialects or for proof of the dialects’ intermediate status. Only for the dialect of Ivankino village the intermediate status looks reliable, but it was known earlier.
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The article summarizes scientific information about the history, internal motivation and collocation possibilities of the impersonal verb “nadlezhit” (must) in the Russian language in general and in the official texts of the XVIII century in particular. It is noted that the communication strategy of the charter as a genre involves the active use of stable combinations with imperative semantics, therefore, the author investigates the formula “nadlezhit + infinitive” as one of the most frequent ways of expressing the modal meaning of necessity or obligation in official military texts of the XVIII century using the Military Charter of 1716. The bookish character of the word “nadlezhit”, recorded in many dictionaries of the Russian language, does not have any stylistic markers in the text of the Charter, which ensures its relatively free compatibility with other infinitive verbs within the studied formula. The article also addresses the adaptation of a lexical calque in the Russian text and traces the process of accumulating the volume of the concept expressed by the calque under the influence of the semantics of the original Russian morphemes (in our case, the root -lezh- and the prefix nad-), which became the “building material” for its creation in the host language. It is suggested that the impersonal verb “nadlezhit” with the meaning ‘must’ could be the result of transforming spatial meaning into the meaning of the qualitative assessment of an action, quite natural for Russian prefixed verbs. The author also allows the possibility of “oncoming” semantic processes – the adaptation of the lexical calque in the Russian official text and the development of qualitative semantics in spatial verbs.
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The review paper on N.I. Kareev’s first work published in the September issue of the Journal of the Ministry of National Education in 1869 was analyzed. N.I. Kareev’s publication was focused on the pronunciation of sounds and the graphic system of the ancient Greek language. R.A. Fogt, the qualified expert in classical philology, reviewed it. R.A. Fogt emphasized N.I. Kareev’s good skills in ancient languages studies that he trained at the Moscow gymnasium and used as the background for his reflections about the ancient Greek language. The critical comments of the reviewer were discussed. These remarks concerned the following aspects of N.I. Kareev’s work: historiographical sources, conceptual apparatus, argumentation, logical inconsistencies in the text, and vision of the specifics of the ancient Greek phonetics. In particular, R.A. Fogt pointed out that N.I. Kareev showed little interest in G. Kurtius’ work, expressed his disagreement with the proposal to use the methods of I. Reuchlin in philological research when transcribing Greek letters with Latin, disputed the claim that θ retained its ancient sound in the modern Greek language, etc. As an experienced educator, R.A. Fogt gave advice not only concerning the research procedures, but also about writing methodological manuals for the educational process. The balanced nature of the review paper, its friendly tone, and a generally positive assessment of N.I.’s Kareev work were revealed. It was concluded that this review meant recognition of the young N.I. Kareev in the scientific and educational environment and turned out to be an incentive for his further work as a scientist and author of textbooks.
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