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Pravo glasa je političko pravo i ubraja se u red osnovnih ljudskih prava. Žene danas uživaju ovo pravo u gotovo svim državama sveta. Međutim, nije uvek bilo tako. Borba žena za ostvarivanje prava glasa, kao i mnogih drugih prava, trajala je veoma dugo. U malom broju zemalja ona traje i dan danas.
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The essay recalls the Maria Theresa’s School Reform from 1774–1775 during which music education (M. E.) disappeared from the curriculum of the state-governed elementary schools in the Czech Kingdom. The low prestige of M. E. can be observed at Czech non-music schools even today. To improve the reputation of music education, it isnecessary to change its organization and content.
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Before the 19th century, the Central European countryside was a place where non-local social classes pursued their interests, whether they were of an economic, political, missionary, cultural,or reformatory nature. These classes introduced their ideas and tried to influence local inhabitants through various tools of power from their positions as owners of manors and through state political mechanisms sanctioned by religion, etc.
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In the Slavic period and the Early Middle Ages, arable and livestock farming began to be the primary resources of village livelihoods in Moravia. As such, they influenced all other realms of social and cultural life in the countryside. The land and its possession dominated the basic life strategies of the population in pre-industrial villages; many autochthonous expressions of folk culture in Moravia originated in agricultural traditions. The situation did not change even under the feudal system, despite the changes and innovations inspired by the Enlightenment that altered the lives of serfs under Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Joseph II.
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Folk dress was a symbol defining ethnographic areas. From the beginning of the Modern period, folk dress had a unified form in Central Europe that survived until the 20th century in home-made workwear. Written and pictorial sources from the 16th century have enabled the examination of local differences that evolved into the distinctive regional types known from the 19th century.
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Music and dance culture in Moravian regions features differences as well as similarities. It is logical to inquire about the origins of these differences and identical features, but the questions cannot be answered in allregions and for all cases. It is necessary to beaware that despite a variety of borders, folk culture is permeable because the specific development of even smaller, closed territories was affected by external influences.
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While revealing indigeneity as a vital feature of traditional folk culture, we pointed out the originality of several phenomena and their components, as well as their durability, in the rural environment. The duration of some components resulted from the rural residents’ choices within the framework of what was then imaginable or possible, and with regards to the economic aspects.
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The previous chapter highlighted the stability that characterized the rural population and influenced traditional folk culture which simultaneously incited such preferences. Traditional folk culture was presented from the subjective perspective of its bearers. These bearers, however, often became a subject of topical social trends. The most noticeable developments included various standards ordered by lords, authorities, and the church.
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The religious rituals of rural residents were a realm that other social classes tried to influence, often successfully. The attempts to influence these rituals were a result of differing religious affiliations and the historical transformations of particular churches. The forms of Holy Mass and the behaviors on certain feast days depended on the religious affiliation. Rural residents were not free to choose their religion; in fact, they often were forced to change their religion during periods of reformation and recatholicization. In addition, individual churches underwent complex developments during that period.
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The economy of rural farms aimed at agrarian production was quite a limited and changeable system in the form in which it emerged during the Middle Ages and the Modern period. Unexpected events, such as wars, basic catastrophes, bad weather, and poor harvests weakened the economic balance and farming for many peasants and could even plunge them into material misery. In bad years, official statements and texts written by rural residents mention the lack of foods and raw materials and increasingly high prices that limited the availability of goods for the less-wealthy inhabitants.
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Meant to sketch the methodological frame of the volume, this article discusses varieties of spatial approaches to pre-modern written culture, developed independently in medieval history in many scholarly traditions, separated by the languages in which they publish. Concepts such as “cultural landscape”, “scribal region” or “documentary territory” have their origin in 19th century German scholarly discourse, in which they were known as Kulturlandschaft, Schriftprovinz, and Urkundenlandschaft. The detailed analysis of attempts to prove their usefulness for modern scholarship shows marked similarities with the spatial concepts used in French cultural history, with lieux (places) as the key term. The idea of lieux de savoir (places of knowledge), with among them lieux d’écriture (places of writing), has been developed from 2007 onwards by Christian Jacob. Although this French scholar perceived as pre-modern lieux d’écriture only places of ‘re-production’ of written texts (workshops of copyists and printing houses), his appeal to elaborate the ‘map’ of such places nevertheless inspired the main idea of the volume: to draw the map of the centres of written culture in the pre-modern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Important changes in the paradigm of research on medieval literacy and communication from the 1990s onwards, however, urge us to define anew the concept of lieux d’écriture (or rather that of loca scribendi, better suited to the Polish scholarly tradition). The term here signifies not only copyists’ ateliers and printing houses, but all institutional and private places of the creation of various types of texts (belonging to the various segments of literate behaviour), be they the scribal offices of the municipalities and of the State’s administration, monastic houses, parishes, episcopal chanceries, schools, and even private homes. This all-embracing definition of loca scribendi results in the requirement to abandon the traditional division between the ‘medieval’ and ‘early modern’ periods. Drawing the map of places where written texts were created in the territory of the multiethnic and multilingual Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, within its chronological boundaries of 1385 and 1795, provides a chance to investigate the continuous existence of some and the ephemeral character of other loca, as well as the fluidity of the “centres” and “peripheries” of written culture.
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The subject of the origins of urban chanceries in medieval Poland is discussed using the example of sources from Cracow dating from before 1312. An early stage in the development of Cracow municipal chancery is put into context of the formation of urban self-governance and transformations of legal and written culture in the Polish lands. This chancery had early origins, going back to the 13th century, to the period of the city’s locatio. Its gradual formation is shown by the introduction of the municipal seal (c. 1283), the employment of the first municipal scribe (the earliest evidence dating from 1288–1290), by the growing numbers of urban charters (the earliest dating maybe already from 1288–1290), and, finally, by the introduction of the book of records (c. 1300). The growing political autonomy of the institutions of urban self-governance in a period of political turbulence (between the death of Duke Boleslas the Bashful in 1279 and the suppression of the urban revolt of mayor Albert in 1312), has been singled out as the main factor stimulating the development of the chancery. The growth in importance of the municipal scribal office was also a result of the vivid contacts of the city and its inhabitants with the monasteries from the area and with the court of Jan Muskata, Bishop of Cracow, which was a centre of pragmatic literacy. An acceleration of the chancery’s development is clearly visible in the period 1290–1306, when Cracow was under the control of the Bohemian kings from the Přemyslid dynasty. The intensive socio-institutional transformation of the city led to the urban revolt against the Duke Wladislas the Short.
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The article discusses places of production of written records in two late medieval municipalities of Warsaw (Old and New Warsaw) which influenced the literate behaviour of their inhabitants in the domain of pragmatic literacy. A number of scribal offices were active in Warsaw, attached to various institutions but unequally developed. Distinct loca scribendi worked for the municipalities of Old and New Warsaw, for the court of the Mazovian princes, and for the institutions of the Church. The places of production of records situated in New Warsaw were typical for a small town: there were simple urban offices and the parish church with its school. Development of written culture here most probably was stimulated by the direct vicinity of Old Warsaw, much more advanced in the use of written records. The close contacts between both municipalities were more important in generating the need to use the written word on the part of the inhabitants of New Warsaw than their relations with other agents of practical literacy (e.g. the Church or the rulers’ administration). In Old Warsaw, in chronological order the places on the map of written culture were the municipal offices, the collegiate church (which functioned also as urban parish church), the tribunals of the terrestrial law and the magistrate courts (iudicia castriensia), and the ducal court. The same topography of pragmatic literacy can be seen also in other Polish towns of similar size to Old Warsaw (e.g. Lublin, Przemyśl and Płock). Town dwellers, especially urban officials and members of the financial elite, frequented their loca scribendi on various occasions, although sometimes the reasons for visiting scribal offices are not entirely clear to modern scholars. Among the places where written records were created in Old Warsaw, the municipal chancery played an exceptionally important role. Here, the municipality employed clerks who originated from towns and cities known as important trade partners of Warsaw merchants (e.g. from Silesia, Vilnius and Lublin).
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The topic of the article is the organisation of work in the municipal chancery of Radziejów, a very small town in Cuyavia, in the northern part of late medieval Poland. The records of the local bench and the council registers from 1445–1455 were carefully investigated to this end. As creators of the urban locus scribendi, first the municipal officials and scribes should be mentioned. In the short period of ten years investigated here, 26 persons were connected to the council, while 49 others were involved in work for the urban bench. Palaeographical analysis shows that most entries into both series of town books were made by a single person; accidental hands are scarce. The bench and the council of Radziejów employed the same scribe, and maybe even employed a shared chancery. It is impossible, however, to say where such a joint scribal office might have been situated. The quality of the Latin in the records, the way the records were kept, and the correctness of the legal formulary allows us to judge the professional skills of Radziejów scribes favourably. The types of matter recorded in the town books, their number and frequency, shows that most cases recorded in the council’s registers concerned debts. The bench tried more varied legal matters; yet its records register mainly trade in real estate and regulations concerning ownership. Comparison with other towns shows that the contents of the urban books was hardly extraordinary for late medieval Poland. Prosopographical analysis of the chancery’s clients (their gender, social status, dignities, profession, their role in the cases as described in the town books, and the frequency of their appearances before the council and the bench), shows the profile of a typical client of a small town’s locus scribendi. The average client was a male, usually in possession of the citizenship. Most often he appeared before the bench court on his own, arranging simple matters. He did not belong to the local elites but was a ‘normal’ town-dweller. In ten years, in a settlement of c. 1,000 inhabitants, almost 450 persons came in touch with the chancery. Considering that 75 other persons served as councillors or aldermen, we must conclude that the number of people using the municipal scribal office was really large. Although in Radziejów other loca scribendi were active as well (the magistrate, the terrestrial court, a monastery, and the parish church), for town-dwellers the chancery was most important.
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The article analyses the multistage procedures of tax collection in the Main City of Gdańsk during the 14th and 15th centuries. The complex character of these procedures is illustrated by three examples of urban taxes: the predial rent, the property tax (the so-called szos), and ‘pound duty’. The first two taxes were typical for urban settlements, although the szos was imposed only occasionally (in 1377/1378, 1416 and 1443). The ‘pound duty’ was originally collected for the needs of the Hanse, but later became a local tax. At the turn of the 14th and the 15th century, the Order of the Teutonic Knights took over control of this tax. A by-product of the collection procedures was the complex and vast documentation that was produced in the subsequent stages. Various kinds of tax records, such as primary registers, intermediary notes on wax tablets, lists of debtors, and financial statements, have been analysed.
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The article discusses the role of the written word in the life of Protestant clergymen and their parishes, sketching the connection between the Protestant (especially Lutheran) confession and written culture by comparing the daily functioning of parishes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in the German lands, especially in the Lutheran principalities of Pomerania. The possessing of vernacular translations of the Bible has been compared, attitudes towards a university culture which expressed the essence of literacy, and the presence of symbols and gestures referring to the written word in the daily life of ministers of the Church. Contrary to ‘official’ declarations, the use of the vernacular Bible was very limited. Nevertheless, devotion to the Gospel can be seen in the area of theological references and values. Written culture, in its humanist and academic dimensions, became part of the professional ethos of Protestant ministers. This paradoxically led to many conflicts with the community of believers.
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As was evident, even though the period in question was relatively short, a considerably large number of Ottoman materials were published, despite the diverse nature of the sources. This is partly a result of the fact that some of the above work was made even before 1992, either as projects of individuals or institutions. The material may be uniform in its kind, but it still allows the study of numerous issues that can be studied on the basis of published sources, which makes the “uniformity” of materials completely marginal. While an argument could be made in this respect with regard to the temporal disparity of sources, there are a number of other factors that need to be taken into account. First of all, the (lack of) preservation of the materials for certain periods, but also the absence of a strategy that would, in its program, at least to a point define certain guidelines that should be followed in filling certain time gaps, especially when it comes to the 19th century. Regardless of this kind of shortcoming, it can be said that in terms of publishing of sources, this period was still productive, even though there was a significant amount of material that was translated for decades before its publication.
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This paper argues that the proper origin of Serbian-Albanian hostility had been established in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In the first part, the paper offers examples of positive mutual perceptions between Serbs and Albanians in the oral tradition, early Balkan ethnography and historiography from mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth century. It is contended that the appreciation for Albanian heroes found in Serbian/Montenegrin folk oral songs and narratives stems from a similar social background and shared patriarchal values among the two ethnic groups. In the second part, the paper follows the change in their perceptions from the later part of the nineteenth century onwards, influenced by the Eastern Crisis of 1875-1878, formation of the Albanian national movement, weakening of the Ottoman rule and territorial disputes over the present-day Kosovo and Northern Albania. It is argued that these tendencies gradually led to the establishment of Serbian-Albanian hostility, which became cemented on the eve of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In the last instance, the article focuses on positive examples of Serbian intellectuals who contested such approach and advocates for the re-affirmation of these narratives that emphasize similarities and promote friendship between Serbs and Albanians.
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This interdisciplinary study focuses on death causes of citizens of the town of Rokytnice in the Eagle Mountains. It covers the period from the 20 th February 1784, when the Emperor Joseph II ordered local parsons to keep records regarding citizen ´ deaths. In order to put this research into a more detailed context, the study openswith an analysis of the situation of Rokytnice rectory and the level of healthcare in the second half of the 18th century. The key building stone of the study is an analysis of death records in Rokytnice between 1784–1812. Interestingly, the research shows that the record keeping was interrupted in several places due to missing pre-printed death register formulaires. The situation stabilized sometime between May and June 1784. Apparently, the parsons themselves began to manually prepare the formulaires which turned out to be the simplest solution. These manually completed formulaires existed in Rokytnice until 1812, indicating that the government probably had to resign on these pre-printed formulaires at the beginning of their existence. The next chapter, focusing on death causes of Rokytnice citizens with German origin between 1784–1793, reveals interesting observations. The study proves the quality of death diagnosis was rather low and unstable. Interestingly, parsons recorded symptoms rather than diagnosis in multiple cases. Clearly, this represents an obstacle for this research as it is almost impossible to consistently track the death causes due to missing or incomplete statistics..
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This paper discusses the discrepancy between the image of a rolling stone Gipsy created by such authors as Pushkin and Macha in the first half of the 19th century and the reality. K. H. Mácha’s story takes place the 18th century when the majority of Gipsies have already switched to a settled way of life and began to be forcefully assimilated into the traditional society. In the paper, the emphasis is made on ethical, aesthetic and semantic aspects of the themes of love and desire for death as well as elements of Gipsy culture at the time as opposed to the works of K. H. Mácha and A. S. Pushkin. The focus is on Gipsy stereotypes and image in the Czech and in Russian literature in the 19th century.
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