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CAS Newsletter 2020/2021
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According to contemporary chroniclers, street fights were daily events in medieval Tuscan cities. In an urban environment, mental and tactical preparedness was necessary, although it was also important to know the inner politics of the city. The background of these conflicts was primarily described by the great urban history writers such as Giovanni Villani and Dino Compagni, but there are also special type sources, the so-called ricordanze, that show different elements of this micro-warfare phenomenon. These sources, which can be defined as merchant diaries, had a more personal viewpoint than the great chronicles, and as for the studies on the roots of the conflicts, it was more practical. The Velluti-Mannelli vendetta which happened in 1295 – written down by Donato Velluti – tells us about conscious time and place planning. The attacks had to be prepared not just politically and tactically, but from the economical point of view, too – which also transpires from the chronicle of Luca di Firidolfi da Panzano, who wrote about the hunting for his father’s murderers. The avengers travelled hundreds of kilometres and used the tools of medieval scouting and spycraft. In this paper, I explain and examine the thoughts of the ricordanze authors and conclude my article with a discussion on conflict resolution strategies. Although for medieval writers the most important elements were the fights, based on the parts of the ricordanze that mention the background of the feuds and the logical structure of the narratives we can also examine the situations that led to the war. Thus, we can attempt to analyse the families’ strategies associated with the preparation for conflict and the orchestrating of the raids and combats.
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Harce or harc (Hungarian: harcz; Italian: arciere; Russian: styčka/стычка) are single combat skirmishes between individual warriors fought before a battle in front of both enemy armies. Sometimes it was a duel between the commanders of the army or the best warriors delegated by the opposing sides, which would decide the outcome of the battle without it being fought. The first place on the list of knights who won fame for the Polish army belongs to the Silesian prince Boleslav I the Tall, who defeated an opponent of enormous stature during the Italian expedition of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1162 near Milan. In the 13th–16th centuries in Poland, harce were popular in battles fought on an open field and during sieges of fortified structures. Both heavy knights and light cavalrymen participated in them. Harce or single combat is a custom known since ancient times. It was popular in the era of knightly cavalry in the Middle Ages and persisted into early modern times. The characters from Henryk Sienkiewicz’s novels set in the 17th century still maintained this tradition.
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The problem of Turkish expansion, in the context of which the Battle of Mohacs is considered, is very relevant among researchers. Events of the first third of the 16th century radically changed the historical development of the region of Central-Eastern Europe, and this change was directly related to the defeat at the Battle of Mohacs on August 29, 1526. The date of the battle became a chronological border in the history of the Hungarian, Czech Kingdom and adjacent territories (Slovakia, Croatia and others). The unsuccessful internal policy of the representatives of the Czech-Hungarian line of the Jagiellonian dynasty led to a loss of support among the Czech szlachta and Hungarian magnates. It was not possible to attract the advanced monarchs of Europe to the fight against Turkish aggression. The Hungarian and Czech estates underestimated the level of danger and cared more about their own political and economic interests (The unsuccessful policy of the representatives of the Czech and Hungarian Jagiellon dynasty led to the loss of the support among the Czech lords, Hungarian magnates). All this led to the „Mohacs catastrophe”, where the flower of the Hungarian nobility died. According to various statistics, the royal army numbered 25–28 thousand (of which 8 thousand foreigners: Czechs, Poles, Croats, Serbs, Germans, Italians, Spaniards) soldiers and 53–80 guns. The number of Turkish troops was 55–65 thousand soldiers and 160 guns. The defeat at Mohacs had serious geopolitical consequences. Thus, the majority of the Hungarian small and middle gentry supported Janos Zapolyai, and representatives of the higher gentry supported Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who was also elected to the Czech throne. The Transylvanian principality appeared (depended on Turkey), and the so-called Royal Hungary arose on the other part of Hungary. Thus, the Turkish Empire established hegemony in the central-eastern region of Europe.
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This article outlines the mobilisation efforts made by both the Royal and the Hetman’s Chancellery with the aim of concentrating the maximum armed forces of the Crown army to suppress the uprising of the Zaporozhian Host under the command of Taras Fedorovych and Anton But. Particular aspects of the mobilisation were considered, such as the methodology of its implementation with regard to units of the so-called ‘quarter’ army (Polish: wojsko kwarciane), foreign troops, private cavalry banners, separate banners of the Lithuanian army, and the remnants of the Zaporozhian Host that remained loyal to the Commonwealth. Based on various published and archival sources (registers of army levies, official and private letters, narrative texts, etc.), the geography and chronology of the movement of the Commonwealth army units during this mobilisation, their composition, numbers, and the names of their commanders have been established as far as possible. Particular attention was paid to aspects of the mobilisation of the private cavalry banners of the local magnates from the Zbaraski, Zasławski-Ostrogski, and Zamoyski families, which have been little studied by historians so far, although soon after their mobilisation provided significant support for the quarter army. The beginning of the long and difficult mobilisation of a foreign regiment under the command of Jakub Butler and the Denhoff brothers and the preparation of the Crown artillery for the campaign are also discussed.The research also helped to conclude that after the first stages of mobilisation before the Battle of Pereyaslav, Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski had sufficient forces (in terms of quality and numbers) to stop the main part of the insurgents’ army and to attempt to engage the enemy in gruelling battles in open field.
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The theory of early modern military revolution, which was presented by Michael Roberts in the 1950s and was later revised by various historians, is well known and still in use even today. One of the pillars of supposed revolution was a change of infantry training and a general change of infantry tactics, which first happened in the Netherlands in the 1590s. Another modification of infantry training and tactics took place in Sweden during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus. These transformations were reflected by a specific genre of period learned literature – military handbooks for infantry. Military manuals were published not only in Western Europe but also in Central Europe,, mostly in Germany. In the period of 1550–1650, approximately 125 military handbooks were printed in ca. 225 editions. Twenty-five of these books were concerned specifically with the art of infantry war. Book history is a transdisciplinary field which offers new methods of studying military history. While researching changes of the content and formal aspects of military publications, we can trace changes of period military theory. The prosopography of military theorists and book publishers helps to reveal how the new ideas were disseminated – in this case how the new approaches to infantry training and the art of war spread from Western and Northern Europe to its centre. The aim of this contribution is not only to describe period infantry handbooks, but also to characterise the transfer of revolutionary changes in infantry warfare from Netherlands and Sweden into Central Europe with the help of period military manuals – especially those intended for infantry.
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The article discusses the preparations for the defence of Galicia in the second half of the nineteenth - early twentieth century using the example of the construction and use of the Mykolaiv fortress on the Dniester River. The plans of the defensive structure are presented, as well as its fundamental transformations during the period in question. The article also discusses the creation of new infrastructure around the fortress, i.e. the construction of a railway line and paved roads. The redevelopment works were considerably affected by the changes in political conditions, especially Austro-Russian relations, the activities of Russian intelligence, etc. Particular attention was paid to the events that took place around the fortress during the hostilities in Galicia in 1914 and the Polish-Ukrainian war in 1918-1919 and the commanders that operated in the area, including generals Frantz Konrad von Götcendorf, Edward Böhm-Ermolli, Alexei Brusilov, and Anton Denikin. The paper also presents the circumstances of the capturing of the fortress by the Russian army and the course of the military actions in the Mykolaiv area. The discussed fortress is one of the best-preserved monuments of WWI fortifications on the territory of Ukraine.
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The article discusses the problem of results of and lessons from the Spanish-American war of 1898 through the «sea power» concept. American captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, who was the author of this concept, believed that the guarantee of the power and prosperity of any great political power was a powerful navy. In this view, the United States, which Mahan also counted among the mightiest world powers, should build its navy more actively. Not only did the war with Spain confirm Mahan’s ideas, but also allowed him to expand his concept, leading to the publication of his book Lessons of the war with Spain and other articles. Although Mahan noticed the successful ending of the war on land and at sea, he also pointed out some serious miscalculations that should be corrected as soon as possible. In particular, the US government had to take care of improving its coastal fortifications. If Spain had chosen the tactics of raiding coastal cities, the US would have suffered colossal damage. Other issues postulated by Mahan included increasing the number of warships and army units. In his opinion, it was necessary to allocate additional funds for that purpose and launch a publicity campaign to win the people’s support. While analysing the composition of the US Navy, Captain Mahan recommended focusing on the construction of two types of warships: battleships, to play the main role in sea battles and cruisers that, stripped of armour, were to serve as support for the battleships. Mahan also argued that the construction of older types of ships, such as monitors, should be abandoned.
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The aim of the study is to show the levels on which Polish women joined the endeavour to regain independence after the period of the Partitions. Principally, the study covers the time period from 1914 to the end of the Polish–Bolshevik War in 1921. However, in order to fully present the background of the pro-defence activities of Polish women, the text also refers to a number of events from the period preceding the outbreak of World War I. The activity of female combatants in the struggle for independence and establishment of national borders during the Second Polish Republic is also discussed. The text consists of two parts: in the first part, the author presents the participation of women in paramilitary organisations and armed struggle during World War I and their participation in the Greater Poland Uprising and in the battles for Lviv in Eastern Galicia. She also discusses the activities of women in the Legions, the Polish Military Organisation, and the Voluntary Legion of Women. The second part of the study presents the contribution of civilian women's organisations, in particular the Polish White Cross, to help soldiers and civilians injured in combat. The author points to the role played by the Women’s League for War Alert and the League of Women of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia in securing the army's material base. Faced with the threat of the Bolshevik invasion, women not only actively supported the combatants, but also created a resilient defence propaganda machine in dozens of magazines. The author discusses the agitation campaign for joining the Volunteer Army. The activists of women's associations organised lotteries, festivities, and competitions, during which they raised funds to support the fighters. The sources of the paper are memoirs and the relevant period press, as well as contemporary monographs and scientific articles.
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In the last three decades of the 19th century, the rising popularity of bicycles attracted the attention of army commanders. Soon, they noticed the striking advantages of using bicycles, including speeding up the infantry’s movements. Another great benefit was that bicycles did not require much attention, unlike the most renowned yet demanding form of transportation – horses, which necessitated the presence of special troops in the cavalry to take care of the animals. Therefore, cycling proved to be the cheapest form of personal transportation for the army at that time. Since its establishment, the Czechoslovak army has used bicycle units. Each border battalion had its own company of cyclists. In the early 1930s, there were several studies on bicycle units and shortly after that, four bicycle battalions joined the cavalry brigades. In 1937, a fifth bicycle battalion was formed. These units were considered to be the most well-trained, forming a valuable part of the fast divisions. In 1938, bicycle battalions were a part of the operation against the uprising of Heinlein’s terrorists; bicycle units also operated on the territory of Subcarpathian Rus, suppressing the activities of Polish and Hungarian sabotage groups. The article discusses the history of the development of the Czechoslovakian bicycle units and scrutinises how the Czechoslovak military perceived this phenomenon. The paper also includes information about foreign bicycle units.
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On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union. A week later, on June 29, the Council of People’s Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the communist party (Bolshevists) of Ukraine (CP(b)U) issued a directive to the front-line party organisations, in which they called for the creation of partisan detachments and sabotage groups to fight against the Wehrmacht. Special forces were established for this purpose, consisting of party members, Komsomol, and Soviet activists at the regional, city, and district levels. Already in early July, such a task force began to operate in Kharkiv. In addition to the aforementioned persons, the unit included employees of the People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs. The NKVD officers were responsible for the creation of local partisan detachments, and party and Komsomol workers were involved in the formation of underground units. In addition, the anti-German resistance included sabotage groups, scouts, signalmen, and a network of safe houses, also selected by the NKVD. Leaders of the party, Komsomol, Soviet authorities, heads of some enterprises, institutions, collective farms, NKVD employees, and medical workers operated behind the enemy lines. Special bases holding ammunition, food, medicines, and other necessary supplies were also formed to support the underground units. People who had collaborated with NKVD before the war became the operatives responsible for sending reports to the Soviets about the political and economic situation in Kharkiv and its environs, and the attitude of the local population towards the Germans, their allies, and collaborators.
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The assumption of the post of Prime Minister of Japan by General Tojo Hideki on 17 October 1941 was interpreted in London as a prelude to further aggressive actions on the part of Tokyo. The purpose of this article is to examine what steps the British government took to prepare for a potential confrontation in diplomatic and military fields. A key reinforcement of British forces was the creation of the Far East Fleet squadron intended to serve as a primary deterrent, which was done at the expense of weakening the position of the British Navy in other areas. In contrast, land troops in the Malay region received only token support. The Air Force was in the worst position, as there were far too few aircraft for defensive purposes and they were not of the best quality. However, due to the involvement on other fronts and supplying military equipment to the Soviet Union, it was impossible to deliver more weapons to Southeast Asia. In the area of diplomacy, the main effort was directed at securing guarantees of support from the United States. However, due to the Neutrality Acts and the general reluctance of the American public to participate in the war, only verbal promises of assistance were obtained. Cooperation with the Dutch East Indies authorities went much better and they remained the most important ally for the British Empire in the area. In addition, attempts were made to enlist the cooperation of Thailand, but London’s offer to that country remained extremely unattractive, as the British were unable to provide guarantees of territorial integrity for the Thais. All these factors, combined with a misreading of Japanese intentions, meant that Britain entered the armed conflict with Japan poorly prepared, leading to the defeat at the Battle of Malaya and the fall of Singapore.
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A family from Sliven left a lasting mark in the history of Bulgaria and in the construction of our post-liberation army. The Valnarovi family is related to the families of Tapchilestovi, Hristo Botev's mentor in Odessa - Hristo Pavlov from Kalofer and many other famous Bulgarian families.
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The Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw holds the documents containing information about the armament and fortification of royal castles on the eastern borders of the Kingdom of Poland, including the descriptions of cities and castles in the Lviv Land of the Ruthenian Voivodeship. In particular, the collection of manuscripts from years 1534 (2 registers) and 1542 (1 register) contains several pages of information about the weapons stored in the small castle in Kamionka Strumiłowa (since 1944 р. Kamianka-Buzka (Кам'янка-Бузька), currently a town in the Lviv Region in western Ukraine). The shorts synopsis comprises records only about castle weapons, artillery and stocks of ammunition. The purpose of this article is to show the state of artillery and small arms that were supposed to protect the inhabitants of Kamianka from the attacks of Tatars, Turks and Moldovans. According to the manuscripts, it appears that the castle artillery consisted of 4 bombards or veuglaires, 1 bronze cannon, 1 small fauconneau (półtarasnica), 1 mortar, 1 damaged fauconneau (taraśnica). The personal handfirearms of the defenders of Kamianka-Buzka included a 4–7 handguns (rusznica) and 9–10 hackbut (hakownica). The garrison also had 12 crossbows and 2 tensioning mechanisms for the bow string (goats foot lever, hewar). Cold weapons appeared to be not popular, as the records mention only 4 bear spears (rohatina). The reserves of body armour were small and amounted to only 5 breastplates (plachy przednie) and 2 backplates (plachy zadnie) of cuirass and 6–9 helmets (kettle hats). Artillery supplies were represented by bullets, gunpowder and tin.
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The article presents a thorough study of the unique saber of 17th century, that kept in the Mirhorod Local Lore Museum (Ukraine). The form of blade of this ‘Hussar’ saber represents a special mix of Ottoman and Eastern European weaponry traditions of the Early Modern Times. After a comprehensive analyze of the inscriptions on the blade, the author interpreted them as the name of the owner of weapon, inscription year, didactic sentence and bind them up with the real historical events and persons, known from the written sources. This saber is important for analyzing and illustrating the development of Eastern European blades, and recognized as a very rare sample, that belonged to the Alexey Apostol – a high-ranking Cossack noble of polk (province) of Mirhorod.
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In the article analyzes the image of Manchurian China in American political cartoons on the eve and during the Yihetuan Movement. In the second half of the 19th century in the USA appeared a number of magazines which specializing in political cartoons. Such magazines as „Harper’s Weekly”, „Puck” and „Judge”, whose cartoons looked like works of art, held leading positions among them. Cartoonists, were raising acute economic, political and social issues in their works, not only actualized them, but also were forming public opinion. Foreign policy problems weren’t left outside also. The object attention of American caricaturists at the end of the 19th – early of the 20th century was China, what were caused by the US economic interests in this region. American caricature portrayed the Chinese and China as a backward barbarian or a treacherous official, which didn`t want to keep pace with progress. The beginning of the Yihetuan Movement and participation of the American troops in its suppression had a significant impact on the image of „Celestial Empire”. A bloodthirsty barbarian and a huge dragon, which was bringing only destruction and anarchy, replaced the backward Chinese barbarian in the cartoons. The dominance of such images fully corresponded to the then ideas about the civilizing mission of the US, and became a part of the myth of the so-called „Yellow Peril”.
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In the years 1918–1921, one of the main challenges of Polish military logistics was the transportation of prisoners-of-war and internees from the front to camps located inside the country. This article will present a part of this problem, e.g., the transportation of the Ukrainian POWs and internees during and after the war for Eastern Galicia in 1918–1919. The following research questions will be analyzed: how was the Polish military system for POWs organized in terms of transportation? How did the POWs transfer stations in Lviv’s prison „Brygidki” and at Przemyśl-Zasanie, as well as at the assembly points at military units, function? In which conditions were prisoners-of-war transported from the front to the interior of the country?
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The theatre was not only an artistic institution, a focus for the most important achievements and trends in literature, music, visual arts and dance, but also a very important institution of social life, a space where one could show off, flirt, do business; in a word, the theatre was the place to visit. Opera was meant to enchant, dazzle and seduce. An opera performance was an extremely expensive investment. Singers, choristers, dancers and musicians had to be paid. Investments had to be made in machinery and special effects. The basic genres were classical opera and comic opera. These took different forms, particularly divergent in Italy and France.
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The essay contains subjective reflection on the interconnections between the history of cities and anthropology and sociology, based on the author’s personal research experience, including research on the history of Łódź. According to the author, who in his career had episodes of close cooperation with both sociologists and cultural anthropologists, contemporary urban studies require close interdisciplinary cooperation. The author agrees with those historians and methodologists who criticise the too-rigid, idiographic approach to historical research. On the example of his own experience, he shows how inspiration from other sciences can improve the research workshop of a city historian and be an incentive to implement interdisciplinary research projects.
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The article concerns the connections between anthropology and history. The author describes the opportunities and threats related to interdisciplinarity present in these two sciences, refering to the subject of research, types of sources, methodologies and expected research results. The basis for the considerations is book Zbyt głośna historyczność. Użytkowanie przeszłości w Azji Wewnętrznej [Too Loud a Historicity. The Usable Past in Inner Asia] by Zbigniew Szmyt.
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