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The author of the article “Romanian gard – An Old Germanic Loan and Its Linguistic-Historical Implications” aims to clarify the etymology of a much discussed Romanian term. About the origin of Rmn. gard (‘enclosure, fence, garden, wickerwork barrier for fishing’) three main etymological explanations have been proposed in course of time: (1) earliest of all, Diez considered that Gothic gards (‘house, household, family, courtyard’) could account for both Romanian gard and Albanian gardh (‘hedge, palisade, dam’); later it was only Scriban and Gamillscheg who were definitely in favour of an Old Germanic origin for Rmn. gard; (2) most other scholars followed Miklosich’s authoritative (but hardly credible) opinion according to which the Romanian word under discussion simply derived from Old Slavic gradъ (‘fortified settlement’); (3) and in more recent times, specialists like Russu and Brâncuş considered Rmn. gard to be a substratal (Thraco-Dacian) term closely related to Alb. gardh. The present author brings new arguments in favour of the Old Germanic etymology (which was credibly sustained in Gamillscheg’s Romania Germanica). One of the main arguments taken into account below is that O.Slav. gradъ itself is best explained as a very early borrowing from Germanic, that idea being archaeologically supported by the numerous traces of Old Germanic (even pre-Gothic) “enclosures” that have been found in now Slavic territories north of the Carpathians. In regard to phonetics, in Slavic (a satem language, like Thracian, for that matter), a word that etymologically corresponds to Phrygian -gordum (in Manegordum) and to Latin hortus ‘garden’ should have an initial z; and, in fact, Russian does contain such a native word: zorod ‘enclosure for haystacks’, a remote relative of Russ. gorod ‘city’ (the latter being an East-Slavic version of the Germanic loan gradъ). This author considers that, even before East-Scandinavian Vikings came to control East-Slavic territories that they designated as Gardar (on the Dniepr), earlier Slavs had come into touch with Old Germanic “enclosures” (as power-centres, and nuclei of cities to-be), of the kind designated by Goth. gards. Such a term also became known, independently, to pre-Roman ancestors of the Romanians (and to proto-Albanians) in Central-Southeast European regions controlled by one or another kind of Old Germanics (as Herrenvolk). That kind of early contact, which certainly preceded the Slavic expansion of the 6th–7th centuries, can account for the fact that Romanians have preserved the term gard with archaic-rural meanings, and (in form) without the specific Slavic metathesis, gar > gra (a feature that is manifest, for instance, in the Romanian term grădină ‘garden’, an obvious Slavic loan). So, Rmn. gard appears to come from pre-Roman substratal idioms (as several important scholars have assumed), but in those idioms such a term was an Old Germanic loan, a fact that is indicated by both its initial consonant g, and its vowel a (as regular Germanic development from an Indo-European o – cf. Lat. hortus). From the language of earliest Slavs (Sklavenoi) who moved south, Romanians subsequently inherited ogradă, grădină, and grădişte (themselves based on Old Germanic loans), but not also gradъ.
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This study will examine the role of morpho-syntactic structures in the creation of metaphor from a contrastive point of view and in relation to Romance and Germanic languages. Within the framework of cognitive linguistics, the analysis suggests that morpho-syntax, as a part of the linguistic component largely neglected in cognitive research concerning metaphor creation, plays an important role in literary innovations. This appears to be the case in the formation of composite adjectives. In line with the impact of physiological and sensory conceptualization proposed by Cognitive Metaphor Theory, it seems that morphologies related to the Romance and Germanic languages also contribute to the creation of a literary style arising from the morphology concerned. Stylistic effects thereby appear to vary between these two language groups. Additional constraints may arise within one language group, however, due to semantic features in morphemic order and collocations.
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This article represents a photo of Vasil Levski, which was found in the Turkish Presidency State Archives of the Republic of Turkey – Department of Ottoman Archives in Istanbul in October, 2018. Its presence in exactly this archive, along with other documents of the Bulgarian revolutionary organization and the text on the back of the photo in Ottoman Turkish, leads to the conclusion that this is the photographic portrait of the Apostle, which was used for his chasing. With it, the total number of Vasil Levski‘s photos amounts to eight.
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The period of XIV and XV century is one of the most important for Balkan history. The Ottoman invasions of the Balkans predetermine the destiny of Bulgarians, Ottomans, Greeks, Serbs and a number of other nations, because Ottoman hegemony significantly alters the ethnic, religious and geopolitical outlook of Southeast Europe. One of the most memorable personalities of this period is the Byzantine Em¬peror Manuel II Paleologus (1391 – 1425), who in order to save his decaying state made a desperate move - on December 10, 1399, he sailed from Constantinople, aboard several Venetian galleys, to seek personal help from the rulers of the West. This adventure is one of the most romantic parts of Byzantium’s past, and to this day it is of great interest to historians. In this article we will explore some of the key points in this journey.
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This paper contains a summary, chronology and analysis of a specific process that Albania has in general, as it is the specificity of blood feud, which is one of the typical and very current problems of the Albanian people. The implication of the second parties and the third parties on these developments in reconciliation of the lynx and the effect of the Canon of Lekë Dukagjini and other socio cultural implications for overcoming the inter human conflicts that find support at customary law, at the same time it is considered as an act to settle down the disputes, a legal and institutional component for the replacement of the courts. Special emphasis is placed on the Canon that Albanian law is an Albanian institution, institutional history, but also a “formulated idea”. It is the mind and spirit of the Albanians, conceived for centuries in the oral tradition, preserved, protected with fanaticism and transmitted as a message, to be understood, disaggregated and absorbed in the way it was formulated and transmitted, without being changed in form and content. The Canons are the product of an ancestral society, when Canon law was the only right to regulate life. Life becomes fierce not only in the sense of confronting nature, but also of people with each other, which is characterized by a constant competition, which one alone can not withstand. One of the challenges that Albanian society and state faces in this decade is the phenomenon of blood feud and revenge, a habit inherited from the ancient past, incompatible with the principles of civilized society and the rule of law.
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